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A Voxon VX1 volumetric display showing DICOM medical data

A volumetric display device is a display device that forms a visual representation of an object in three physical dimensions, as opposed to the planar image of traditional screens that simulate depth through a number of different visual effects. One definition offered by pioneers in the field is that volumetric displays create 3D imagery via the emission, scattering, or relaying of illumination from well-defined regions in (x,y,z) space.

A true volumetric display produces in the observer a visual experience of a material object in three-dimensional space, even though no such object is present. The perceived object displays characteristics similar to an actual material object by allowing the observer to view it from any direction, to focus a camera on a specific detail, and to see perspective – meaning that the parts of the image closer to the viewer appear larger than those further away.

Volumetric 3D displays are a type of autostereoscopic display,[1] in that they provide a different view to each eye, thus creating three-dimensional imagery that can be viewed by unaided eyes. However, they have the advantage over most flat-screen autostereoscopic displays, that they are able to provide realistic focal depth in addition to providing motion parallax and vergence, thus avoiding vergence-accommodation conflict.

Volumetric displays are one of several kinds of 3D displays. Other types are stereoscopes, view-sequential displays,[2] electro-holographic displays,[3] "two view" displays,[4][5] and panoramagrams.

Although first postulated in 1912, and a staple of science fiction, volumetric displays are not widely used in everyday life. There are numerous potential markets for volumetric displays with use cases including medical imaging, mining, education, advertising, simulation, video games, communication and geophysical visualisation. When compared to other 3D visualisation tools such as virtual reality, volumetric displays offer an inherently different mode of interaction, providing the opportunity for a group of people to gather around the display and interact in a natural manner without having to don 3D glasses or other head gear.

Types

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Many different attempts have been made to produce volumetric imaging devices.[6] There is no officially accepted "taxonomy" of the variety of volumetric displays, an issue which is complicated by the many permutations of their characteristics. For example, illumination within a volumetric display can either reach the eye directly from the source or via an intermediate surface such as a mirror or glass; likewise, this surface, which need not be tangible, can undergo motion such as oscillation or rotation. One categorization is as follows:

Swept-volume display

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Swept-surface (or "swept-volume") volumetric 3D displays rely on the human persistence of vision to fuse a series of slices of the 3D object into a single 3D image.[7] A variety of swept-volume displays have been created.

For example, the 3D scene is computationally decomposed into a series of "slices", which can be rectangular, disc-shaped, or helically cross-sectioned, whereupon they are projected onto or from a display surface undergoing motion. The image on the 2D surface (created by projection onto the surface, LEDs embedded in the surface, or other techniques) changes as the surface moves or rotates. Due to the persistence of vision, humans perceive a continuous volume of light. The display surface can be reflective, transmissive, or a combination of both.

Another type of 3D display that is a candidate member of the class of swept-volume 3D displays is the varifocal mirror architecture. One of the first references to this type of system is from 1966, in which a vibrating mirrored drumhead reflects a series of patterns from a high-frame-rate 2D image source, such as a vector display, to a corresponding set of depth surfaces.

An example of a commercially available Swept-volume display is the Voxon VX1 from Voxon Photonics. This display has a volume area that is 18 cm × 18 cm × 8 cm (7.1 in × 7.1 in × 3.1 in) deep and can render up to 500 million voxels per second. Content for the VX1 can be created using Unity or using standard 3D file types such as OBJ, STL and DICOM for medical imaging.

Static volume

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So-called "static-volume" volumetric 3D displays create imagery without any macroscopic moving parts in the image volume.[8] It is unclear whether the rest of the system must remain stationary for membership in this display class to be viable.

This is probably the most "direct" form of volumetric display. In the simplest case, an addressable volume of space is created out of active elements that are transparent in the off state but are either opaque or luminous in the on state. When the elements (called voxels) are activated, they show a solid pattern within the space of the display.

Several static-volume volumetric 3D displays use laser light to encourage visible radiation in a solid, liquid, or gas. For example, some researchers have relied on two-step upconversion within a rare-earth-doped material when illuminated by intersecting infrared laser beams of the appropriate frequencies.[9][10]

Recent advances have focused on non-tangible (free-space) implementations of the static-volume category, which might eventually allow direct interaction with the display. For instance, a fog display using multiple projectors can render a 3D image in a volume of space, resulting in a static-volume volumetric display.[11][12]

A technique presented in 2006 does away with the display medium altogether, using a focused pulsed infrared laser (about 100 pulses per second; each lasting a nanosecond) to create balls of glowing plasma at the focal point in normal air. The focal point is directed by two moving mirrors and a sliding lens, allowing it to draw shapes in the air. Each pulse creates a popping sound, so the device crackles as it runs. Currently it can generate dots anywhere within a cubic metre. It is thought that the device could be scaled up to any size, allowing 3D images to be generated in the sky.[13][14]

Later modifications such as the use of a neon/argon/xenon/helium gas mix similar to a plasma globe and a rapid gas recycling system employing a hood and vacuum pumps could allow this technology to achieve two-colour (R/W) and possibly RGB imagery by changing the pulse width and intensity of each pulse to tune the emission spectra of the luminous plasma body.

In 2017, a new display known as the "3D Light PAD" was published.[15] The display's medium consists of a class of photoactivatable molecules (known as spirhodamines) and digital light-processing (DLP) technology to generate structured light in three dimensions. The technique bypasses the need to use high-powered lasers and the generation of plasma, which alleviates concerns for safety and dramatically improves the accessibility of the three-dimensional displays. UV-light and green-light patterns are aimed at the dye solution, which initiates photoactivation and thus creates the "on" voxel. The device is capable of displaying a minimal voxel size of 0.68 mm3, with 200 μm resolution, and good stability over hundreds of on–off cycles.

Human–computer interfaces

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The unique properties of volumetric displays, which may include 360-degree viewing, agreement of vergence and accommodation cues, and their inherent "three-dimensionality", enable new user interface techniques. There is recent work investigating the speed and accuracy benefits of volumetric displays,[16] new graphical user interfaces,[17] and medical applications enhanced by volumetric displays.[18][19]

Also, software platforms exist that deliver native and legacy 2D and 3D content to volumetric displays.[20]

Technical challenges

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Known volumetric display technologies also have several drawbacks that are exhibited depending on trade-offs chosen by the system designer.

It is often claimed that volumetric displays are incapable of reconstructing scenes with viewer-position-dependent effects, such as occlusion and opacity. This is a misconception; a display whose voxels have non-isotropic radiation profiles are indeed able to depict position-dependent effects. To-date, occlusion-capable volumetric displays require two conditions: (1) the imagery is rendered and projected as a series of "views", rather than "slices", and (2) the time-varying image surface is not a uniform diffuser. For example, researchers have demonstrated spinning-screen volumetric displays with reflective and/or vertically diffuse screens whose imagery exhibits occlusion and opacity. One system[21][22] created HPO 3D imagery with a 360-degree field of view by oblique projection onto a vertical diffuser; another[23] projects 24 views onto a rotating controlled-diffusion surface; and another[24] provides 12-view images utilizing a vertically oriented louver.

So far, the ability to reconstruct scenes with occlusion and other position-dependent effects have been at the expense of vertical parallax, in that the 3D scene appears distorted if viewed from locations other than those the scene was generated for.

One other consideration is the very large amount of bandwidth required to feed imagery to a volumetric display. For example, a standard 24 bits per pixel, 1024×768 resolution, flat/2D display requires about 135 MB/s to be sent to the display hardware to sustain 60 frames per second, whereas a 24 bits per voxel, 1024×768×1024 (1024 "pixel layers" in the Z axis) volumetric display would need to send about three orders of magnitude more (135 GB/s) to the display hardware to sustain 60 volumes per second. As with regular 2D video, one could reduce the bandwidth needed by simply sending fewer volumes per second and letting the display hardware repeat frames in the interim, or by sending only enough data to affect those areas of the display that need to be updated, as is the case in modern lossy-compression video formats such as MPEG. Furthermore, a 3D volumetric display would require two to three orders of magnitude more CPU and/or GPU power beyond that necessary for 2D imagery of equivalent quality, due at least in part to the sheer amount of data that must be created and sent to the display hardware. However, if only the outer surface of the volume is visible, the number of voxels required would be of the same order as the number of pixels on a conventional display. This would only be the case if the voxels do not have "alpha" or transparency values.

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Volumetric display

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A volumetric display is a three-dimensional (3D) display that generates a visual representation of an object by creating light-emitting s—volume elements—throughout a physical 3D space, enabling naked-eye viewing with natural from multiple angles without the need for or headsets. However, true mid-air images without scattering light off a medium, such as air molecules, particles, or a surface, violate fundamental physics principles, as visible light requires interaction with a medium to scatter or emit toward viewers' eyes from all angles. Unlike traditional 2D screens or stereoscopic systems that simulate depth through , volumetric displays produce true volume-filling imagery where each voxel emits visible light from its specific position, supporting 360-degree observation and multi-user interaction. This autostereoscopic approach leverages human visual cues such as accommodation and motion for immersive experiences. The concept of volumetric displays traces its roots to early 20th-century experiments in 3D visualization, with foundational ideas emerging alongside in the , though practical implementations began in the mid-20th century through methods like aerial reprojection using parabolic mirrors, as patented around 1970. Significant advancements occurred in the and with laser-based and rotating-screen prototypes, driven by needs in and , leading to commercial prototypes like Actuality Systems' Perspecta display in the early . Recent developments, including femtosecond-laser-excited voxels and holographic integration, have enabled colorized and interactive aerial graphics, as demonstrated in systems separating drawing and viewing spaces to enhance realism. Volumetric displays encompass several types, broadly categorized by light generation methods: swept-volume displays use rapidly rotating screens or diffusers synchronized with projectors to trace voxels in 3D; static-volume approaches employ layered liquid-crystal panels or gas discharges for fixed-depth imagery; and laser-plasma displays excite air molecules with focused lasers to create luminous points mid-air, using air as the gaseous physical medium. Emerging variants, such as elastic diffusers or tomographic projectors, address limitations in resolution and viewing uniformity for larger audiences. These systems typically operate within enclosed transparent volumes to contain the display space, though aerial projections aim for unbounded viewing. Key applications include medical visualization for anatomical models, engineering for , and defense for tactical simulations, where the multi-perspective viewing enhances collaborative decision-making. Despite their potential, challenges persist, such as limited resolution due to voxel density constraints, safety concerns with high-energy lasers, and high costs hindering widespread commercialization, though ongoing research in software integration and scalable fabrication signals growing viability.

Fundamentals

Definition and Principles

A volumetric display is a device that generates three-dimensional (3D) imagery by emitting or scattering at precisely controlled points within a physical volume of space, enabling viewers to perceive the image from multiple angles with authentic . Unlike traditional two-dimensional (2D) screens or stereoscopic displays that simulate depth through , volumetric displays produce true 3D visuals where rays emanate from actual spatial locations corresponding to the scene's geometry, supporting natural cues such as motion parallax and accommodation. This approach eliminates the need for or head-tracking, making the display inherently autostereoscopic and viewable omnidirectionally without restrictions on observer position. The fundamental principles of volumetric displays revolve around the controlled excitation of voxels—volumetric pixels defined by coordinates (x, y, z) in —to form the . Light is either emitted directly from voxel sites or scattered off media such as gases, solids, or rotating surfaces, leveraging the physics of light propagation and to create a stable, perceivable volume. In contrast to holographic displays, which reconstruct wavefronts for interference-based imaging, or multi-view displays that approximate 3D via angular projections, true volumetric systems position light-emitting or -scattering elements at their exact 3D coordinates, avoiding the common in simulated-depth technologies where eyes focus at a fixed plane despite converging on virtual distances. This physical instantiation of voxels ensures accurate focal cues, enhancing realism in . Key concepts include the display's resolution, quantified by voxel density, which determines the fidelity of the 3D image; the total number of voxels V is the product of the number of addressable points along each dimension: V=nx×ny×nzV = n_x \times n_y \times n_z where nxn_x, nyn_y, and nzn_z are the voxel resolutions along the x, y, and z axes, respectively. Voxel density is typically expressed in voxels per cubic unit, such as per mm³. Volumetric displays can be realized through methods like swept-volume (using motion to trace voxels) or static-volume (fixed voxel arrays) approaches, though these are explored in detail elsewhere.

Historical Development

The concept of volumetric displays traces its roots to early 20th-century theoretical ideas, though practical development began in the mid-century. One of the earliest documented notions appeared in science fiction depictions during the , where three-dimensional projections were portrayed as immersive visual technologies in media such as television series, inspiring later engineering efforts. Initial patents for rotating screen mechanisms emerged in the early , with ITT Laboratories demonstrating a system using a high-brightness cathode ray tube synchronized with a rotating mirror to create persistence-of-vision 3D images. Advancements in the mid-20th century were propelled by pioneering work in computer graphics and display technologies. In 1965, Ivan Sutherland published "The Ultimate Display," envisioning a computer-driven system capable of rendering three-dimensional scenes that users could interact with physically, laying foundational ideas for volumetric visualization beyond flat screens. Sutherland's subsequent 1968 development of the first head-mounted display at Harvard further influenced volumetric concepts by enabling stereoscopic 3D perspectives, though it focused on augmented rather than true volumetric projection. By the 1990s, swept-volume prototypes gained traction, with early commercial efforts producing mechanical systems that rotated screens or LED arrays to fill a display volume, marking a shift toward tangible 3D imaging hardware. The saw increased commercialization and technical refinement. In the , Actuality Systems introduced the Perspecta swept-volume display in 2006, a spinning LED screen that projected interactive 3D models viewable from multiple angles without , targeting applications in and . The brought innovations in static-volume approaches, including laser-based methods that induced plasma or in air or media to form fixed 3D , as explored in defense-funded research for high-resolution projections. A notable milestone occurred in 2017 with the publication of the 3D Light PAD, a static-volume using photoactivatable dyes in a medium illuminated by digital light processing to create high-resolution, multi-color 3D images with sizes around 50 micrometers. In the late and , laser-plasma techniques advanced with lasers enabling aerial voxels by exciting molecules in a physical medium such as ambient air or gases, where visible light scatters off these media to become perceivable from all angles, in accordance with the physics of light propagation. Commercial progress includes Voxon Photonics' upgrade of the VX2 display in September 2024, featuring a resolution of 8 million voxels for improved interactive applications in gaming and visualization. As of 2025, developments continue to emphasize integration into specialized sectors such as defense for tactical simulations and for anatomical visualization. Market analyses project significant growth, with the global volumetric display sector estimated to reach between $1.8 billion by 2030 and $14.8 billion by 2031.

Types

Swept-Volume Displays

Swept-volume displays generate three-dimensional images by rapidly moving a two-dimensional surface, such as a screen, mirror, or array of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), through a volume of space, relying on the persistence of vision in the human eye to fuse successive slices into a coherent 3D form. This mechanical motion—typically rotational or oscillatory—traces out the display volume, with each position of the surface displaying a corresponding 2D slice of the intended 3D scene at high speed. The persistence of vision effect, where the eye retains an image for approximately 1/16 to 1/20 of a second, integrates these slices to create the illusion of a solid, viewable-from-any-angle volume without requiring eyewear. The of the display is critical to prevent flicker and maintain smooth , governed by the equation f=1tsweepf = \frac{1}{t_{\text{sweep}}}, where ff represents the volumetric in frames per second and tsweept_{\text{sweep}} is the time required for one complete sweep of the surface through the volume. To achieve a experience, ff must typically exceed 20-30 Hz, necessitating sweep times under 50 milliseconds and correspondingly high-speed between the motion and rendering. Early implementations often used rotating LED arrays or fan-like structures, where LEDs on a spinning illuminate specific points during each to build the volume radially. A prominent commercial example is the Voxon , introduced in , which employs a reciprocating LED screen oscillating at high speed within a display volume of 18 cm × 18 cm × 8 cm, rendering up to 500 million s per second at a 30 Hz volumetric . Other early fan-based prototypes, such as those developed in the late using propeller-mounted LEDs, demonstrated basic 360-degree views but were limited to simple geometric shapes due to challenges. Hybrid laser-swept systems combine mechanical sweeping with projection, directing beams onto a rotating diffuse surface to enhance precision and color , as seen in prototypes bouncing arrays off fast-spinning screens for brighter, multi-color outputs. These displays offer advantages in and full-color reproduction, as the rapid motion allows for high-luminance sources without occlusion issues inherent in static methods, enabling vivid, interactive 3D scenes viewable from all angles. However, they suffer from mechanical wear on moving parts, which reduces long-term reliability, and limited depth resolution due to the constraints of sweep trajectory, often resulting in cylindrical or ellipsoidal volumes rather than arbitrary shapes. Typical resolutions range from 100 to 500 voxels per dimension in prototypes, balancing computational demands with visible detail, while power consumption hovers around 50-100 to drive the motors and illumination.

Static-Volume Displays

Static-volume displays illuminate discrete within a fixed three-dimensional without employing , enabling true 3D imagery viewable from multiple angles. These systems activate points in a medium through optical excitation methods, such as laser-induced plasma generation, light in or mist, or structured emission from layered (LED) arrangements. In laser-induced plasma approaches, a high-intensity femtosecond focuses energy to ionize air or gas molecules at precise locations, producing luminous plasma that emit visible . The minimal spot size δ for such focused is governed by the diffraction limit, expressed as δ=λ2 NA,\delta = \frac{\lambda}{2 \, \mathrm{NA}}, where λ\lambda is the and NA\mathrm{NA} is the of the focusing , determining the achievable resolution. Fog-scattering mechanisms project structured light into a volume of suspended particles, such as from ultrasonic emitters, where photons scatter off the medium to form bright at intersection points, allowing for reconfigurable display surfaces. Layered LED configurations stack translucent scattering sheets or arrays illuminated at high incidence angles to create depth-resolved planes, with light guided and diffused to simulate a continuous . These methods contrast with motion-dependent techniques by relying solely on stationary optical addressing for activation. Notable examples include the 3D Light PAD, a solid-state system using photoactivatable dye molecules in a polymer matrix excited by and visible projectors, achieving voxels of 0.68 mm³ volume and 200 μm lateral resolution for stable, high-contrast 3D imagery. Fog-screen displays, such as matrix-based fog emitters combined with , support interactive volumetric content by dynamically adjusting mist density for depth-specific scattering. Voxelated LED cubes utilize fixed 3D grids of addressable LEDs embedded in a transparent matrix to directly emit from predefined positions, forming solid, emissive volumes without scattering intermediaries. These displays offer key advantages, including the absence of mechanical components that could fail over time and the potential for denser packing in compact, fixed setups compared to rotating systems. However, they typically exhibit lower brightness due to losses or limited emission and necessitate specialized media like fog chambers or solid matrices, which can constrain deployment in open or mobile environments. In the , plasma-based systems have advanced toward air-only voxels, eliminating physical media altogether; for instance, arrays now enable compact, fist-sized aerial displays with improved safety and multi-color capabilities through precise plasma excitation in free space.

Applications

Human-Computer Interfaces

Volumetric displays facilitate gesture-based control in 3D space by enabling users to manipulate virtual objects through tracked hand movements, such as multi-finger interactions that allow direct grabbing, rotating, and sculpting without physical barriers. This approach leverages motion-tracking systems like Vicon cameras operating at 120 Hz to capture finger positions with sub-millimeter precision, supporting natural inherent to the display's 360-degree viewing volume. For instance, techniques like ray cursors and depth rays reduce movement time in selection tasks by up to 20% compared to traditional 3D cursors, as demonstrated in controlled experiments with geometric model-building applications. Multi-user viewing on volumetric displays avoids occlusion conflicts by rendering true 3D scenes that appear consistent from all angles, allowing simultaneous interaction without viewpoint-dependent distortions common in 2D screens. Tools such as 3D radial menus and scene-splitting enable parallel access, where users can independently navigate or annotate models while maintaining inter-user awareness through highlighting and text flags; expert evaluations in and confirmed this supports collaborative tasks like surgical . Integration with VR/AR hybrids extends this by overlaying volumetric content onto head-mounted displays, enhancing depth judgments in applications like automotive interfaces, where volumetric AR improves distance perception accuracy by providing natural oculomotor cues. These displays support platforms like software and CAD systems through input mappings that translate 2D devices, such as digitizing tablets, into 3D manipulations within the display volume, facilitating spatial organization of orthographic views on enclosure surfaces. In medical interfaces, gesture-based controllers with sensors allow precise handling of volumetric data from , such as rotating and clipping 3D models of biological structures like zebrafish organs, reducing the need for large interaction spaces. Depth-aware input devices, including 6DOF trackers and bimanual controllers, enable precise positioning in the display's enclosure, with techniques like weighted Euclidean models optimizing pointing accuracy across depth angles up to 90 degrees. Latency requirements for immersive interaction remain under 20 ms to prevent perceptual disruptions, aligning with broader HCI standards for real-time 3D manipulation where delays above this threshold degrade user performance. Case studies from research, such as evaluations of ray-based selection in collaborative volumetric UIs, showed reduced task completion times by 19% in multi-user scenarios, highlighting viability for interactive 3D applications. Advantages include natural manipulation of virtual objects, as seen in systems using elastic diffusers that permit reach-through touching without controllers, fostering intuitive control in shared environments. Recent advancements, such as the FlexiVol display introduced in 2025, further enable direct interaction with floating 3D content for applications in modeling, , and medical training. However, real-time interaction demands high bandwidth for voxel rendering, with streaming optimizations reducing data loads by up to 65% to maintain fluidity in multi-user sessions.

Artistic and Entertainment Uses

Volumetric displays have found significant application in the arts, enabling immersive and interactive experiences that transcend traditional two-dimensional media. One pioneering example is Hologlyphics, an artistic technique developed by Walter since 1994 that integrates volumetric image synthesis with music performance. This system employs a parallactiscope—a rotating mechanical display—and quadraphonic audio to generate real-time 3D visuals synchronized with sound, such as volumetric mouths modulated by voice synthesis or spatial warping effects controlled via keyboards and motion sensors. Hologlyphics has been showcased in live performances, often using multiple displays to create kaleidoscopic and interactive volumetric art that blends holography-inspired visuals with musical improvisation. Art installations further demonstrate the creative potential of volumetric displays through sculptural forms. For instance, Voxelite is a volumetric light featuring over 20,000 LEDs arranged in a cubic lattice, transforming into an interactive photon playground for . Similarly, the N00tron 3D Spherical Volumetric Display serves as an interactive exhibit where is created within a spherical volume, allowing viewers to engage with rotating LED elements that produce dynamic 3D patterns. These installations leverage swept-volume techniques, such as rapidly rotating LED arrays, to craft tangible, viewable-from-all-angles that emphasize as a medium for aesthetic exploration. In entertainment, volumetric displays enhance immersion in video games by providing true 3D environments without requiring headsets or glasses. Voxon Photonics' and VX2 systems, which use fast-rotating LED screens to form volumetric holograms, support interactive gaming experiences viewable from 360 degrees. Examples include titles like Voxatron, a multiplayer game demonstrated with up to four players engaging in 3D battles on the VX2-XL display, offering shared holographic arcade-style play that emphasizes depth and motion . These displays have been positioned for gaming since 2019, creating "holographic arcade" setups that allow multiple users to interact with floating 3D objects in real time. Beyond gaming, volumetric displays appear in and theme park attractions to captivate audiences with lifelike 3D visuals. Hypervsn's holographic systems, akin to volumetric projections, generate floating advertisements in public spaces like malls, drawing viewers with interactive, angle-independent imagery. In theme parks, technologies such as Aireal's displays provide immersive simulations, enabling guests to experience volumetric scenes that enhance in rides and exhibits. Volumetric elements have integrated into visuals during the 2020s, adding depth to stage effects for enhanced audience engagement. The aesthetic benefits of volumetric displays in stem from their ability to create genuine three-dimensional narratives, fostering emotional depth through natural viewing cues. Unlike flat screens, they offer 360-degree perspectives, perfect accommodation-vergence matching, and excellent , allowing multiple viewers to explore scenes without and accommodating those with impaired stereo vision. This facilitates innovative narrative techniques, such as volumetric video for character-driven stories in immersive media. However, content creation for volumetric displays presents challenges, particularly in artistic and contexts. Producing high-fidelity 3D assets requires specialized tools for multi-view content, as existing 3D software often lacks support for light field or volumetric formats, complicating adjustments and scene integration. Additionally, capturing and editing volumetric video demands high-specification hardware for real-time rendering, while adapting creative workflows—such as virtual camera motion or plugins—remains underdeveloped for volumetric media. Market trends indicate strong growth in entertainment applications, with the global volumetric display sector projected to expand at a CAGR of 25.75% from 2024 to 2035, driven by demand for immersive gaming, live events, and attractions.

Scientific and Industrial Applications

In applications, volumetric displays facilitate the creation of interactive 3D models of organs derived from volumetric CT and MRI scans, aiding surgeons in preoperative planning by allowing manipulation and examination from multiple angles without physical models. For instance, holographic volumetric displays have been developed to accelerate the interpretation of 3D scan images, reducing times and improving outcomes in procedures such as liver resections. These technologies enhance diagnostic and by providing realistic spatial representations that traditional 2D screens cannot achieve, with adoption driven by the need for precise visualization in complex anatomies. In scientific research, volumetric displays support the rendering of geophysical data for applications like oil exploration and , where 3D visualizations of seismic volumes help geologists identify subsurface structures such as faults and reservoirs more intuitively than flat projections. Similarly, in chemistry, they enable the display of molecular simulations, allowing researchers to explore atomic interactions and volumetric maps in true 3D space, which aids in understanding phenomena like or chemical reactions. Recent full-color dynamic volumetric displays using upconversion nanoparticles, reported in 2025, improve color purity and vividness for such simulations. These tools prioritize conceptual insight into complex datasets, with examples including immersive environments for geological volume modeling that integrate volumetric rendering for enhanced exploration accuracy. Industrial uses leverage volumetric displays for design reviews and simulations across sectors. In , engineers employ them for prototyping aircraft components and analysis, enabling collaborative 3D walkthroughs that reduce errors in assembly planning. Defense applications include tactical simulations where volumetric projections of terrain and equipment provide commanders with spatial awareness for mission preparation. The utilizes these displays for of vehicle interiors and crash simulations, allowing teams to assess ergonomic and safety features in a shared 3D environment. Beyond core research and industry, volumetric displays find utility in education, particularly for anatomy instruction, where holographic models like the Anatomy Atlas allow students to interact with detailed 3D representations of human organs, improving retention and understanding over 2D diagrams. Market analyses project significant growth in medical and defense segments, with the overall volumetric display sector expected to expand at a (CAGR) of approximately 32% through 2032, fueled by demand for advanced visualization in these fields. Integration with further enables real-time rendering of dynamic 3D models, such as updating surgical simulations based on live patient data, enhancing responsiveness in high-stakes applications.

Technical Challenges

Resolution and Computational Demands

Volumetric displays face significant resolution challenges primarily due to the physical constraints of generation and illumination. In prototypes, sizes are typically limited to around 200 μm, as seen in a digital light photoactivatable dye display that achieves a minimum observable volume of 0.68 mm³ with 100–200 μm resolution in horizontal and vertical directions. This granularity restricts the sharpness of rendered 3D scenes, particularly for fine details in complex geometries. Furthermore, occlusion remains problematic, as many systems fail to render hidden s with true opacity, allowing unintended visibility of obscured elements from certain viewer positions and compromising realistic . The computational demands for volumetric rendering are immense, driven by the need to process and transmit vast amounts of 3D data in real time. For instance, a 1024 × 768 × voxel volume at 60 volumes per second with 24-bit color requires a bandwidth of approximately 135 GB/s, far exceeding the 135 MB/s needed for an equivalent 2D display (e.g., 1024 × 768 pixels). This data rate arises from the fundamental R=V×D×FR = V \times D \times F, where RR is the required data rate in bits per second, VV is the total number of voxels, DD is the bits per voxel (e.g., 24 for RGB color), and FF is the in frames per second; for the example above, V≈8.05×108V \approx 8.05 \times 10^8, yielding R≈1.16×1012R \approx 1.16 \times 10^{12} bits/s or approximately 135 GB/s after byte conversion. Graphics processing units (GPUs) are essential for handling ray-tracing in volumetric scenes, where light paths through dense voxel grids demand parallel computation to achieve interactive rates, as implemented in texture-based pipelines. Trade-offs between resolution and update speed are inherent, as increasing voxel density exponentially raises processing loads, often forcing reductions in frame rates below 30 Hz for complex scenes to maintain stability. Software optimizations, including voxel compression techniques that prune sparse regions or quantize density values, alleviate these burdens by minimizing data throughput without severely impacting visual fidelity. Current prototypes illustrate these limits; for example, the Perspecta swept-volume system renders up to 100 million voxels per color channel at over 8,000 images per second using GPU-accelerated pipelines, achieving effective rates in the hundreds of millions of voxels per second for monochrome displays. High-resolution applications, such as medical imaging or simulations, may eventually necessitate exascale computing resources to enable seamless, photorealistic volumetric rendering at interactive speeds.

Safety and Practical Limitations

Volumetric displays, particularly those employing lasers for illumination, pose significant risks due to potential eye and hazards from high-intensity beams. Many laser-based systems operate at power levels that classify them as Class 4 under international standards, where direct or reflected exposure can cause immediate and permanent damage or severe burns, necessitating strict interlocks, enclosures, and protective during operation. Swept-volume displays introduce mechanical dangers from rapidly rotating components, such as LED arrays or screens spinning at thousands of RPM, which can lacerate or cause upon contact; these systems typically require protective barriers to prevent user access to moving parts. Additionally, plasma-generated displays create localized high-temperature points that can cause thermal burns if touched. Practical limitations further constrain deployment, including the reliance on scattering media like or in static-volume systems, which demand controlled environments to maintain image clarity—ambient or particulates can disrupt uniform , degrading resolution and introducing artifacts. Current prototypes are generally confined to volumes under 1 m³, such as the Voxon VX2's 256 mm diameter by 256 mm height, limiting applications to or small-scale setups rather than immersive rooms. Power demands range from 50-500 depending on the mechanism, with swept-volume examples like the VX2 averaging 65 but requiring robust cooling to manage heat dissipation. Deployment barriers as of 2025 include prohibitive costs, often spanning thousands to millions per unit due to specialized and , alongside challenges for consumer markets where high production expenses and limited resolution hinder mass adoption. Environmental sensitivities, such as dust accumulation in fog-based systems, exacerbate maintenance needs in non-laboratory settings, while regulatory compliance with standards like IEC 60825-1 adds overhead, delaying . These factors, combined with bandwidth constraints that amplify real-time rendering difficulties, underscore the technology's niche status beyond controlled prototypes.

References

  1. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02107-3
  2. https://www.optica-opn.org/home/articles/volume_29/june_2018/features/volumetric_displays_turning_3-d_inside-out/
  3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2956363_Volumetric_3D_Displays_and_Application_Infrastructure
  4. https://physicstoday.aip.org/features/three-dimensional-displays-past-and-present
  5. https://dl.acm.org/doi/full/10.1145/3706598.3714315
  6. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13319-017-0122-2
  7. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4269274/
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