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Type case
Type case
Type case
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Type case
An 18th-century type case, with various tools for typesetting

A type case is a compartmentalized wooden box used to store movable type used in letterpress printing.[1]

Modern, factory-produced movable type was available in the late nineteenth century. It was held in the printing shop in a job case, a drawer about two inches (5 cm) high, three feet (90 cm) wide, and about two feet (60 cm) deep, with many small compartments for the "sorts" (various letters and ligatures). The most popular and commonly used job case design in America was the California Job Case, which took its name from the Pacific Coast location of the foundries that made the case popular.[2] These cases allowed type to be compactly transported.

Traditionally, the capital letters were stored in a separate drawer, or case, placed above the case holding the other letters (this is why the capital letters are called "uppercase" characters, and the minuscules are "lower case").[3]

There were a great variety of cases, and also variations in the "lay", or the assignment of the sorts into the compartments.[4] Different printers had different house layouts even for the same design of case.

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Type case

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A type case is a compartmentalized wooden tray used in traditional letterpress printing to organize and store individual pieces of movable metal type, typically consisting of two stacked trays: the upper case for capital (majuscule) letters and the lower case for small (minuscule) letters, a physical arrangement that gave rise to the modern terms "uppercase" and "lowercase." These trays feature compartments of varying sizes to accommodate the frequency of letter usage—larger boxes for common characters like "e" and smaller ones for rare ones like "z"—and a uniform depth of about one inch to hold the type pieces upright. The type case emerged in following Johannes Gutenberg's invention of in the mid-15th century, revolutionizing book production by allowing efficient manual composition of text from reusable metal characters. For centuries, printers relied on these cases placed on sloping frames or desks, with the lower case positioned closer to the compositor for quick access to frequently used lowercase letters, while the upper case sat above it. This dual-tray system facilitated the labor-intensive process of hand-setting type into composing sticks, a practice that dominated until the late when mechanical machines began to supplant it. A notable evolution was the California job case, invented in the mid-1800s to meet the needs of itinerant printers during the ; it combined upper and lower cases into a single tray, arranging uppercase letters alphabetically on the right and lowercase by frequency on the left to minimize hand movement—saving typesetters an estimated half-mile of daily travel across the case. By the 1960s, the reached its commercial peak, but with the decline of due to offset and digital methods, type cases transitioned from practical tools to decorative or historical artifacts, preserving a tangible link to the artisanal roots of .

History

Origins in Early Printing

The invention of by in , , around 1440 marked a pivotal advancement in technology, creating an immediate need for systematic storage to manage the hundreds of individual metal letters required for composing text. This innovation, building on earlier techniques such as those used in coin minting, enabled the of books but demanded efficient organization to prevent chaos in the workshop. Without proper storage, the small, interchangeable type pieces—cast from a lead-tin-antimony —could easily scatter, slowing the process and increasing errors during production. The earliest emerged as simple wooden trays divided into basic compartments, serving as storage bins from which compositors could select and arrange letters using a . These rudimentary cases, often referred to as compositor's boxes, allowed for the segregation of by character, facilitating quicker access during the labor-intensive setting of lines. In Gutenberg's , such compartmentalized wooden structures held the metal essential for major projects, addressing the inefficiencies of loose storage that had plagued earlier experiments with in and . A notable example is the production of the (1454–1455), where basic type cases stored approximately 290 distinct type sorts, including variants for ligatures, , and spacing materials. This organization was crucial for coordinating the work of multiple assistants across three presses, enabling the completion of around 180 copies of the 1,286-page work. However, the lack of standardized compartment sizes in these early cases led to challenges like uneven distribution of frequently used letters, such as vowels and common consonants, which often resulted in delays and the need for constant redistribution after runs. These issues spurred initial innovations in compartment to optimize workflow and minimize type scattering.

Development in the 15th to 19th Centuries

In the , printers began refining type case designs to enhance efficiency in composing text, transitioning from rudimentary wooden trays to more organized wooden boxes with divided compartments for individual letter sorts. These early cases typically featured separate upper and lower sections, with the upper holding capitals and the lower containing small letters, a configuration that developed in the across European print shops, with early adoptions in (1563), England (1588), and (at least 1723), to reduce sorting time during hand composition. By the late 17th century, English printer and hydrographer Joseph Moxon documented the first standardized layout for type cases in his Mechanick Exercises on the Whole Art of Printing (1683), illustrating a pair of cases with a total of 98 compartments—54 for lowercase letters and figures in the lower case, and 44 for uppercase and punctuation in the upper case—positioned at an angle on a sloped stand for ergonomic access by compositors. This double-case system, widely adopted in and influencing continental practices, emphasized logical arrangement based on frequency of use, with vowels and common consonants in central positions to minimize hand movement. Moxon's work marked a pivotal refinement, as cases were now calibrated to standard type bodies like pica (approximately 12 points) and nonpareil (6 points), ensuring compatibility with emerging typefounding precision. During the , type case standardization advanced in and amid the growth of commercial , with cases dimensioned specifically for type sizes such as pica for body text and nonpareil for footnotes or , allowing shops to stock uniform equipment across foundries. In , the pica body became the unit for case construction, measuring about 1/6 inch high, while French printers aligned with the cicéro system (similar to pica but metric-based), fostering interoperability in international book production. These developments supported the expansion of the trade, as seen in and workshops where cases were mass-produced from or , often sloped at 15-20 degrees for better visibility and reach. The brought significant innovations with the rise of job printing for advertisements and , culminating in the around the 1880s, developed in by journeyman printer Octavius Dearing through Ellis Read's type to streamline access to a wide array of sorts in small runs. This single-frame case combined upper and lower compartments into 89 slots, with larger sections for frequently used lowercase letters (e.g., e, a, i) and smaller ones for rare symbols, reducing the need for multiple cases and improving workflow efficiency by up to 30% in busy American shops. Adopted nationwide after the 1892 formation of American Type Founders —which merged 22 foundries including Read's successor, Palmer & Rey—the California design became the dominant standard for hand composition in the United States, influencing layouts in fine printing into the .

Decline and Legacy in the 20th Century

The introduction of Linotype and Monotype machines in the late 19th century marked the beginning of the decline in traditional manual type handling, with widespread adoption accelerating in the early 20th century. Invented in the 1880s—Linotype by Ottmar Mergenthaler in 1884 and Monotype by Tolbert Lanston in 1887—these hot-metal typesetting systems automated the casting of type, drastically reducing the need for compositors to manually select and place individual letters from type cases. By the 1910s, these machines had become standard in newspaper and book production, enabling faster composition and minimizing the labor-intensive organization of physical type, which diminished the centrality of type cases in commercial printing workflows. The post-World War II era accelerated the obsolescence of physical type cases through the rise of and . Beginning in the early 1950s, machines, which exposed type images onto film or photosensitive paper without molten metal, began replacing hot-metal systems, offering greater flexibility and reduced costs. This shift, combined with the growing dominance of —which transferred images from plates to rubber blankets—rendered traditional type cases largely unnecessary in commercial settings by the late 1950s, as printers moved away from assembling metal sorts altogether. Despite their commercial decline, type cases retained a legacy in niche and revivalist practices, particularly through letterpress movements focused on from the 1970s onward. Artisans and small presses adopted salvaged type cases for hand-composition in , emphasizing the tactile quality of letterpress for limited-edition books, invitations, and artistic works, often integrating vintage equipment with modern adaptations like plates. This revival preserved historical printing techniques amid the digital revolution, fostering communities dedicated to the aesthetic and material heritage of . The end of industrial-scale type case production was epitomized by the closure of major foundries in the , including Monotype's transition away from hot-metal operations. In , Monotype manufactured its last , and by 1992, the corporation entered , with its hot-metal plant and assets rescued for preservation rather than continued commercial use, signaling the definitive shift to digital typography.

Design and Components

Case Structure and Materials

Traditional type cases, essential for organizing movable type in letterpress printing, were primarily constructed from well-seasoned wood to ensure stability and prevent warping or shrinking over time. These materials allowed the cases to withstand the rigors of daily use in printing workshops from the 15th century onward. Standard type cases measured approximately 32 inches in width by 16 inches in depth, with a frame depth of about 1.25 inches to accommodate the height of metal type pieces. Construction involved fitting a wooden bottom—often reinforced with three-ply veneer in later designs—into a groove along the frame's edges, while thin dividers were hand-sawn, mortised, and dovetailed into place to form the compartments. A central crossbar provided additional structural support, and reinforcements like brass clasps and pins secured the assembly, ensuring longevity and precise alignment. Variations in design catered to specific needs, such as smaller three-quarter or two-thirds cases for job printing or more portable applications by traveling printers in the 18th and 19th centuries. These compact versions, sometimes made with lighter woods for mobility, maintained the core wooden framework but reduced overall size to suit itinerant work. Historical examples, like Joseph Moxon's 17th-century case measuring 31 by 18.5 inches, illustrate early adaptations emphasizing functionality over standardization.

Layout of Compartments

The layout of compartments in a type case typically follows a grid system of rows and columns, with individual sections varying in size to optimize storage based on the frequency of letter usage in printing. Larger compartments are allocated to common lowercase letters such as 'e', 'a', and 't', while smaller ones hold rarer characters like 'z', 'j', 'x', 'q', and 'k', reflecting ergonomic efficiency for compositors who accessed types thousands of times daily. This non-uniform arrangement, rather than equal-sized boxes, minimizes sorting time and reduces errors during composition. Historically, early 15th-century type cases featured simple, uneven compartments numbering around 50 to 60, often in a single tray design that evolved from rudimentary storage for Gutenberg-era . By the 17th century, as described by Joseph Moxon in 1683, paired cases introduced more structured grids, with the lower case displaying approximately 53 compartments arranged to prioritize frequent letters in central positions for quick retrieval. In the , job cases expanded this to over 90 compartments—such as the with 89 sections—to accommodate diverse jobbing work, including , figures, and spaces, while maintaining frequency-based sizing. Ergonomic principles guided these designs, with compartments often sloped or tiered within the case to allow type pieces to slide forward under , preventing them from sticking or piling unevenly and enabling fingertip access without deep reaching. Cases were positioned on inclined stands, with the lower case at waist height for primary use, promoting sustained productivity during long setting sessions. A specific example is the double-layer case configuration, where one side or paired tray holds in its standard grid, and the adjacent or reverse side stores in a mirrored or complementary layout, facilitating seamless switches between font styles without cross-contamination.

Upper and Lower Case Distinctions

In traditional , the type case system employed two distinct wooden trays known as the upper case and the lower case, positioned on a slanted compositor's frame to facilitate efficient access. The lower case, placed at a lower and angled for proximity to the compositor's hands, primarily stored small letters (minuscules), which were used far more frequently in text composition. In contrast, the upper case was elevated above the lower case on the same frame, holding capital letters (majuscules) and other less common sorts such as figures and . This hierarchical arrangement, typically set on a frame about 5.5 feet long and 4.5 feet broad, allowed natural light from a to illuminate the workspace, with the slant preventing type from rolling out of compartments while enabling quick retrieval. The nomenclature "upper case" and "lower case" derives directly from this physical configuration, with the terms entering common usage in European printing shops by the late 17th century. Capital letters occupied the elevated upper case due to their relative infrequency, reducing the need for constant bending or reaching, while the more accessible lower case housed the bulk of minuscule letters for rapid selection during setting. Joseph Moxon, in his influential 1683 treatise Mechanick Exercises on the Whole Art of Printing, explicitly describes this setup, noting that the declivity of the frame positions the upper case higher and the lower case nearer to the worker for ergonomic efficiency. These terms reflected not just storage but the practical workflow of hand composition, where frequency of use dictated placement. Regarding compartments, the upper case featured a grid of 98 uniform square boxes, each designed to hold the less frequently needed capitals in equal measure, allowing for straightforward without prioritization by usage. The lower case, by , comprised approximately 53 boxes with varied sizes—larger ones positioned centrally and nearest the compositor's right hand for common letters like 'e', 'a', and 'i', while smaller boxes at the edges accommodated rarer sorts. This differentiation optimized speed, as the lower case's layout accommodated the uneven distribution of letter frequencies in English and other languages. Both cases measured approximately 2 feet 9 inches long, 1 foot 4.5 inches broad, and 1.25 inches deep, constructed from seasoned wood with partitions one English body thick to ensure durability and consistent type depth. By the , this dual-case system had become the universal standard in European establishments, as evidenced by Moxon's detailed account of its widespread adoption in English and Dutch shops. The configuration persisted with minimal variation into the 18th and 19th centuries, influencing global typographic practices until the mechanization of diminished its necessity.

Usage and Techniques

Setting Type in Traditional Printing

In traditional , the process of setting type involved a skilled compositor manually assembling individual metal characters into lines and pages using a type case as the primary . The compositor typically stood or sat before the case, which held sorted type in shallow compartments, allowing quick access to frequently used letters. This hands-on method, central to and production from the onward, required precision to ensure and alignment in the final printed form. The workflow began with the compositor holding a —a handheld metal tray, usually made of iron or brass, approximately 10 inches long with an adjustable slide to set line length—in the left hand for right-handed workers. Using the right hand, the compositor selected individual type pieces from the lower case compartments, starting with the most common lowercase letters like 'e' and 't', which were positioned for minimal reach. Letters were inserted left-to-right and upside-down into the stick to produce correct orientation when printed, following the sequence of the manuscript copy; spaces and were added as needed using thin metal strips or quads for justification. Once a line was complete, it was transferred to a —a shallow wooden or metal tray—for storage, with multiple lines building into a full page or forme. Efficiency in this labor-intensive process depended on the compositor's experience and the ergonomic layout of the type case, which minimized finger travel. A could set between 1,000 and 2,000 characters per hour, though averages were often lower due to the need for and adjustments. Tools like a bodkin (a pointed awl for correcting misplacements) and a shooting stick (a wooden for securing type in the ) aided in maintaining order. Errors, such as spilling the composing stick, resulted in "pi"—a jumble of disordered type that had to be painstakingly redistributed back into the case compartments to avoid waste and delays.

Organization and Sorting Practices

After printing, the process of distributing type involved returning the used metal sorts to their designated compartments in the type case, a labor-intensive routine essential for maintaining order and readiness for future composition. This was typically done by hand, with workers holding lines of type in one hand and using the other to pick out individual characters, or employing a distributing stick to advance sorts one by one into the case while matching their shapes—such as the , , and face—to the correct slots. Best practices emphasized efficiency and precision to prevent errors, with apprentices often trained over months to identify and sort type by touch alone, recognizing subtle differences in sort dimensions even in low-light conditions common to print shops. To avoid mixing fonts or sizes, dividers were inserted into case compartments, segregating different sets and ensuring quick access without contamination. Historical variations in these practices reflected shop scale and demands; in large operations, dedicated distributors handled the task full-time, arranging type neatly with nicks facing up for consistency, as noted in early 20th-century instructions. In smaller shops, compositors performed their own distribution to prevent "case "—shortages or mixtures of type that could halt production—ensuring cases remained fully stocked and organized. Challenges included wear on the metal sorts from repeated handling and ink buildup, which could cause them to fit poorly into compartments or become indistinguishable, leading to sorting errors. These issues were addressed through periodic cleaning with type wash, such as solutions based on , which dissolved dried without damaging the type faces.

Adaptations in Non-Printing Contexts

As printing technologies advanced in the , surplus type cases from letterpress operations were increasingly repurposed for non-printing storage and display, capitalizing on their compartmentalized originally intended for organizing metal type. In hobbyist communities during the mid-to-late , these wooden trays gained popularity as shadow boxes for showcasing small collections, such as buttons, shells, or other curiosities, allowing items to be arranged and viewed like miniature dioramas. This trend, which emphasized the trays' rustic charm and practical dividers, marked an early surge in their adoption beyond industrial contexts. By the 2000s, online DIY resources proliferated tutorials for type cases into functional organizers, often mounting them on walls or stands to hold , tools, or personal mementos while preserving their aesthetic for a nostalgic, eclectic look. These adaptations, such as converting trays into spice racks or jewelry holders by lining compartments with fabric or adding hooks, extended the cases' utility into household organization, blending historical form with contemporary practicality. As of , type cases continue to surge in popularity within trends emphasizing and retro aesthetics.

Cultural and Modern Significance

Influence on Typography Terminology

The terms "uppercase" and "lowercase" originated in the trade during the , referring to the physical storage of capital letters in the upper compartment and small letters in the lower compartment of wooden type cases used by compositors. These terms first appeared in English contexts in , reflecting the practical organization of type to facilitate efficient access during manual . By the , the had become standardized in printing manuals, influencing broader linguistic conventions beyond the print shop. In , the word "sort" denotes an individual piece of type, derived from the 17th-century practice of sorting metal letters into case compartments for reuse, a term that persists in to describe type elements or font characters. Similarly, "pi" (or "") refers to a jumbled mass of type that has fallen out of order, originating in the 1650s as printers' slang possibly evoking a medley like a pie's ingredients, and it remains in use today to describe disordered layouts in software. These terms extended into everyday language, such as "out of sorts" meaning unwell, stemming from a printer running short of specific type pieces in the 17th century. The influence of type case design spread to non-Latin scripts during colonial printing expansions, with adaptations for complex systems like in by the early , where European-style cases were modified to organize matras, vowels, and consonants for and . This adoption facilitated the of vernacular texts, embedding case-inspired organizational principles into indigenous printing practices across by the mid-1800s. In the digital era, type case terminology endures in computing, where "uppercase" and "lowercase" describe character variants, and the Shift key—named for its typewriter-era function of physically shifting to uppercase types—enables toggling between them on keyboards. This legacy appears in user interfaces, such as font selection panels in design tools like Adobe Illustrator, which organize variants in grid layouts echoing the compartmentalized structure of historical type cases for intuitive navigation.

Preservation in Museums and Collections

The preservation of historical type cases as cultural artifacts is a critical endeavor in institutions dedicated to printing heritage, focusing on maintaining these wooden structures that once organized for manual . The Plantin-Moretus Museum in , , exemplifies such efforts with its collection of 16th-century type cases, preserved within the original workshop of printer , a since 2005. These cases, used by compositors to store lead type in compartments for various alphabets including Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, remain on display alongside the world's oldest surviving presses from around 1600. The museum's conservation approach integrates to protect both the wooden cases and their metal contents from degradation. Similarly, the (AAS) in , curates 19th-century job cases as part of its extensive printing history holdings, including cases displayed with the restored Isaiah Thomas press from 1747, which highlight the standardized layouts adopted by American printers during the industrial era. The British Library's printing collections further contribute to this landscape by safeguarding related typographical artifacts, though type cases are often contextualized within broader and press histories. Conservation techniques prioritize preventive strategies to address the vulnerabilities of wooden type cases, primarily constructed from or prone to environmental stresses. Climate-controlled storage is a cornerstone, regulating relative humidity to 40-55% and temperatures to 18-22°C to inhibit wood rot caused by fungal growth in excess moisture, a common issue in unconditioned historic buildings. Since the 1970s, restorers have employed archival glues—such as reversible, pH-neutral adhesives like wheat starch paste or (PVA)—to mend cracked dividers and reinforce compartment structures, ensuring repairs are non-damaging and allow future interventions. At the Plantin-Moretus Museum, these techniques extend to mitigating interactions between wooden cases and metal type, as emissions of acetic and formic acids can accelerate lead ; thus, cases are housed in sealed, low-emission environments to preserve the ensemble. Notable collections have increasingly incorporated digital inventories since the early 2000s to enhance and reduce handling risks. The AAS, for instance, offers catalogs and high-resolution images of its 19th-century job cases through platforms like its Digital Collections portal, enabling global researchers to study compartment layouts and associated type without physical access. Such efforts, often supported by grants for projects, include metadata on case dimensions, materials, and , facilitating comparative studies across institutions. A persistent challenge in type case preservation is pest damage from wood-boring insects, particularly powderpost beetles (Lyctidae family), which bore into untreated wood, creating exit holes and that weaken the cases' integrity over time. Museums counter this through (IPM) protocols, involving routine inspections with adhesive traps and ultraviolet light detection for early infestation signs. When infestations occur, employs targeted methods like anoxic atmospheres or freezing at -30°C for 72 hours to kill larvae without residues, as seen in protocols for wooden printing artifacts; these avoid broad-spectrum chemicals to protect adjacent collections.

Contemporary Reproductions and Uses

In the , type cases continue to be reproduced through artisanal , with custom versions crafted from wood to replicate traditional designs for letterpress practitioners. Makers on platforms like produce handmade wooden type cases, such as half-sized models measuring approximately 15 by 15 inches, tailored for specific needs like smaller type collections or display purposes. These reproductions often use or , echoing original materials while incorporating modern for durability. Contemporary type cases find practical application in letterpress workshops, where they organize movable metal or during artisanal processes, supporting small-scale production of invitations, posters, and books. Beyond , they serve as decorative elements in studios, functioning as wall-mounted shadow boxes or desktop organizers for tools, samples, and collectibles, blending functionality with aesthetic appeal in creative environments. Market trends reflect growing interest in customized type cases among artists and hobbyists, with listings and craft fair vendors offering personalized options featuring varied compartment layouts for jewelry, miniatures, or craft supplies. This demand aligns with broader vintage-inspired decor movements, evident in online sales channels since the mid-2010s. Innovations in type case production include 3D-printed plastic variants designed for educational kits, enabling low-cost replication of classic layouts like the for teaching and history. These models, available as open-source files on platforms such as Printables.com, allow users to print trays at home using consumer-grade printers, preserving compartmental fidelity while slashing production expenses compared to wood. For instance, 3D-printed storage cases for stamps facilitate hands-on learning in schools and workshops.

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