Hubbry Logo
VexillatioVexillatioMain
Open search
Vexillatio
Community hub
Vexillatio
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Vexillatio
Vexillatio
Vexillatio
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

A vexillatio (pl.: vexillationes) was a detachment of a Roman legion formed as a temporary task force created by the Roman army of the Principate. It was named from the standard carried by legionary detachments, the vexillum (pl.: vexilla), which bore the emblem and name of the parent legion.

Although commonly associated with legions, it is likely that vexillationes included auxiliaries. The term is found in the singular, referring to a single detachment, but is usually used in the plural to refer to an army made up of picked detachments. Vexillationes were assembled ad hoc to meet a crisis on Rome's extensive frontiers, to fight in a civil war, or to undertake an offensive against Rome's neighbours. They varied in size and composition, but usually consisted of about 1000 infantry and/or 500 cavalry.

Purpose

[edit]

Most of the Roman Army (around 400,000 strong at the beginning of the 3rd century) was stationed along the frontiers from the time of Hadrian, if not earlier. This placed the empire in a precarious position when serious threats arose in the interior or along a remote frontier. There was no central reserve and it was rarely possible to take a full legion, or even a major portion of one, to a troubled area without leaving a dangerous gap in the frontier defences. The only logical solution was to take detachments from different legions and form temporary task forces to deal with the threat. As soon as it was taken care of, these vexillationes were dissolved, and the detachments returned to their parent legions.

Inscription from Abu Ghosh in Israel mentioning a vexillatio of the Xth Roman Legion, Fretensis

The Roman emperors from the time of Augustus had at their disposal units in Italy and in the city of Rome. Over time these units would increase. Augustus created the praetorians who at the time of Domitianus constituted a force of ten cohorts, each of 1000 men strength on paper and who supplied a disputed number of horsemen. Traianus created the Imperial horseguards, the Equites Singulares Augusti, formed from his proconsular horseguard he had when he was the legate of Germania Inferior of about 1000 horsemen. Septimius made many changes in the Roman military. He doubled the number of the horseguards to 2000 horsemen. He filled the ranks of the Praetorians with provincial soldiers. He levied a new legion, Legio II Parthica, and for the first time in Roman history stationed it on the outskirts of Rome, making it more clear that the Roman emperor was a military dictator. Whenever the emperor went on campaign these guards units stationed in the city of Rome would accompany him. Added to these came the vexillationes of the border legions.[1][2]

Votive altar in the Odenwald, Germany, dedicated to Jupiter Optimus Maximus (abbreviated IOM) by the vexillatio of the cavalry cohort of the Sequani and Raurici, associated with the 22nd Legion Primigenia Pia Fidelis [3]

Impact

[edit]

The vexillatio system worked initially, due to the mobility provided by the empire's excellent roads and to the high levels of discipline, cohesion and esprit de corps of these units and the legions from which they came. But during the Crisis of the Third Century (a turbulent period from 235 to about 290) vexillationes were shifted so rapidly from one area to another that units became hopelessly mixed up and became practically independent. Legions that would proclaim a commander as emperor could have a vexillatio in the real emperor's field army or garrisoned on the frontier. This was a major cause of disorganization in the Roman Army which resulted in sweeping military reforms under Diocletian and Constantine I where the basic army unit became the size of one (Quingenaria=500 Soldiers) or two (Milliaria=1000 Soldiers) cohorts instead of the 5000-man legion.[4]

Units

[edit]

From the time of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, and possibly as early as the reign of Gallienus, vexillationes were the usual cavalry units found on campaign though the ala remained. In the 4th century the Vexillationes palatinae and Vexilationes comitatenses of the Roman field armies are thought to have been either 300 or 600 men strong. The Notitia Dignitatum lists 88 vexillationes.

Other units, such as infantry cohortes and centuriae, and cavalry alae and turmae, may have had their own vexilla. In addition, vexillationes with their own vexilla would have designated units of special troops outside the usual military structure, such as vexillarii (re-enlisted veterans), who may have served separately from the cohorts of their ordinary comrades.[5]

References

[edit]

Sources

[edit]
  • Dupuy, R.E.; Dupuy, T.N.. (1986). The Encyclopedia Of Military History: From 3500 B.C. To The Present (2nd Revised ed.). pp. 147–148.
  • Southern, Pat; Dixon, Karen (1996). "Chapter 2". The Late Roman Army. ISBN 0-415-22296-6.
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Vexillatio

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A vexillatio (plural vexillationes) was a temporary unit or detachment formed by the , often drawn from a parent legion or auxiliary cohort and organized under a (a square standard). The name derives from the vexillum, serving as an for specific operations or emergencies. The concept of such detachments originated in the , but the term vexillatio and its systematic use emerged in the early , with the earliest attestations from the 1st century AD following Augustus's reforms; evidence spans through the late Empire. These units were not mere informal groups but often structured as new, semi-permanent formations modeled on regular legionary sub-units like cohorts, complete with distinct titles, command hierarchies, and logistical support, allowing for rapid redeployment to address threats such as invasions, rebellions, or construction projects without mobilizing entire legions. Command was typically vested in equestrian officers, praefecti, or senior centurions, with sizes varying widely from small contingents of a few dozen soldiers to larger forces numbering in the thousands, including , , and sometimes . The itself played a central role, functioning as both a banner and a of for the detachment, borne by a specialized known as the vexillarius, who received double pay; this standard was multi-purpose, also serving cavalry units, signal flags, and even decorations awarded to high-ranking commanders. By the AD, amid the Empire's crises of usurpations and incursions, vexillationes proliferated as flexible responses to border instability, with some evolving into more permanent cavalry formations under later emperors like , comprising 300–600 troopers each. Notable examples include detachments from the Cohortes Tungrorum active in the for frontier duties and the numerous vexillatio units documented in the by the late Empire, illustrating their enduring adaptability in Roman military strategy.

Etymology and Terminology

Origin of the Term

The term vexillatio derives from the Latin , meaning a military standard or used by units to signify identity and command. The word vexillum itself derives from velum, meaning a small sail or veil, possibly originating from naval contexts during the . This standard was typically a square cloth , often red with a golden-yellow border, suspended from a horizontal crossbar affixed to the top of a or pole, distinguishing it from other Roman standards like the eagle-topped aquila. The vexillum served multiple purposes, including as a permanent for units and a temporary marker for detached forces, thereby linking the term vexillatio etymologically to groups organized under such a detached banner. The bearer of the , known as the vexillarius, was a of intermediate rank, often receiving double pay as a duplicarius, and was responsible for carrying the standard in battle or camp to rally troops and signal orders. These standards could display the legion's emblem, such as a figure, or debated symbols like a boar for certain legions (e.g., Legio XX), alongside inscriptions like unit names (e.g., LEG II AUG). The plural form vexilla thus connoted multiple such standards, evolving to denote the collective body of soldiers—vexillatio—grouped and identified beneath them during temporary assignments. The earliest literary attestation of vexillatio appears in Julius Caesar's De Bello Gallico (ca. 50s BC). Epigraphic evidence from the late to AD, such as inscriptions referencing vexilla for detachments, further confirms the term's use in official Roman military contexts.

Usage in Historical Sources

The term vexillatio is attested in Roman literary sources, notably in the works of , where it describes military detachments operating independently under a vexillum standard. In the (3.20), refers to a vexillum veteranorum, a detachment of veterans numbering no more than five hundred, deployed to suppress unrest and illustrating the term's application to specialized, temporary units during provincial campaigns. This usage underscores the vexillatio as a flexible formation, distinct from full legions, often led by a designated . Similarly, employs vexillationes in his Roman History to denote military detachments. Epigraphic evidence provides abundant confirmation of the term's administrative and commemorative role, appearing on altars, building inscriptions, and milestones from the AD as a label for detached units. For example, ILS 1025 (CIL 14.3612) records a commanding a vexillatio of , dedicated in honor of service, highlighting its use in official records to denote temporary legionary groups. Such inscriptions often detail the unit's origin and purpose, serving as votive offerings or markers of construction projects undertaken by these detachments. The symbolic banner, carried to signify autonomy from the parent legion, is implicitly referenced in these contexts. The term appears in both singular (vexillatio) for individual detachments and plural (vexillationes) for combined or multiple forces, reflecting scale and composition. This flexibility extends to auxiliary troops, as evidenced by RIB 3491, a building inscription from High Rochester (Bremenium) naming a vexillatio of cohors II Nerviorum alongside another auxiliary unit, dated to the 2nd-3rd century AD and attesting to non-legionary applications in frontier works. Overall, these sources portray vexillatio as a standardized label for operational versatility across Roman military documentation.

Historical Development

Origins in the Early

The practice of forming vexillationes emerged prominently during the reign of (27 BC–14 AD) as a means to create temporary, flexible detachments from the newly professionalized legions, enabling rapid responses to frontier crises without committing entire units to prolonged campaigns. This innovation addressed the challenges of managing a vast with a standing army, allowing commanders to draw personnel from multiple legions for targeted operations while maintaining the integrity of base garrisons. The initial purpose of these vexillationes centered on providing agile forces for immediate threats, including Germanic incursions along the and potential conflicts on the eastern Parthian borders, where full movements would have been logistically cumbersome. By integrating elements from different units under a shared , Augustus' system facilitated coordinated action across distant theaters, enhancing the army's overall responsiveness. This development was intrinsically tied to the Augustan reforms following the Republican civil wars, which transformed the Roman into a force with fixed , standardized pay, and permanent provincial stations. These changes, including the reduction of legions to 28 standing units, created the organizational framework necessary for routine detachment formations, marking vexillationes as a cornerstone of imperial strategy from the outset of the .

Evolution Through the High Empire

During the reign of (98–117 AD), the deployment of vexillationes became more frequent, particularly to support the ambitious Dacian Wars (101–106 AD), where larger combined detachments drawn from multiple legions were assembled to bolster the Roman forces along the frontier. mobilized vexillationes from key Danubian legions such as the I Adiutrix from , IV Flavia Felix from , V Macedonica from Oescus, VII Claudia from , XIII Gemina from , XIV Gemina from , and XV Apollinaris from , as well as detachments from more distant units including the XII Fulminata from , I Minervia from , and I Italica from . These were integrated into a cohesive expeditionary force estimated at around 60,000 legionaries supplemented by . This approach marked a shift toward scalable, multi-legion vexillationes to enable rapid concentration of manpower for offensive campaigns, exceeding the ad hoc detachments typical of earlier periods. Under (117–138 AD), vexillatio usage evolved to emphasize the consolidation of permanent s, with detachments increasingly employed for routine reinforcements rather than solely for emergency crises. A notable example is the 3,000-strong vexillatio led by T. Pontius Sabinus, comprising elements from , , and Legio XXII Primigenia, dispatched from Upper and to Britain in support of Hadrian's policies, including the and manning of . This reflected Hadrian's strategic focus on defensive stabilization, where vexillationes served to rotate and augment static across provinces like Britain and the Rhine-Danube limes, ensuring sustained presence without fully relocating entire legions. Vexillatio deployment reached its peak in the 2nd century AD, as evidenced by their widespread application during the Antonine Plague (165–180 AD) to maintain internal stability amid manpower shortages and concurrent threats like the Marcomannic Wars. Numerous vexillationes from legions such as I Adiutrix were dispatched to reinforce garrisons along the Middle Danube at sites including Vindobona, Carnuntum, and Aquincum, as well as the Rhine (Mogontiacum, Bonna) and Lower Danube (Viminacium, Potaissa), helping to counter invasions and preserve order in plague-ravaged provinces. These detachments, often vectored by returning troops from eastern campaigns, underscored the flexibility of vexillationes in addressing multifaceted crises during the height of the High Empire's military demands.

Formation and Organization

Process of Detachment

The formation of a vexillatio commenced with the selection of personnel from the parent legion, a directed by the legion's or pursuant to explicit imperial directives. Priority was given to experienced or reliable troops, such as veterans retained beyond their standard service term or soldiers who had recovered from illness, to ensure the detachment's effectiveness for its assigned task. For instance, detached approximately 300 convalescent soldiers under a vexillum to reinforce his forces, illustrating the emphasis on capable personnel even in selections. Once selected, the detachment received a —a square banner affixed to a crossbar on a staff—to signify its operational independence from the main legion and to serve as a point in battle or maneuvers. This standard was carried by a designated vexillarius, an of duplicarius rank, who bore responsibility for its protection and display. The issuance of the vexillum formally marked the unit's status, distinguishing it from mere informal groups and enabling coordinated movement. The for the vexillatio was provisional, adapting to the detachment's scale and mission, with typically assigned to a for smaller groups or a for larger ones. These officers maintained discipline and tactical cohesion during the operation. Provisions for pay continued directly from the parent legion's funds, while supplies such as rations, , and were drawn from the same source or procured en route, ensuring logistical continuity without establishing a separate administrative apparatus.

Composition and Typical Size

A vexillatio was generally formed from detachments drawn from one or more legions or , incorporating a mix of , auxiliary troops, and occasionally specialized personnel such as engineers or artillerymen (ballistarii). The core composition typically emphasized , with sizes ranging from 500 to 1,000 men—often equivalent to one or two cohorts—supplemented by up to 500 to provide mobility and support. This structure allowed for flexible responses to operational needs while preserving the legion's overall strength. Due to their temporary and task-specific formation, vexillationes operated without a rigid, permanent , instead relying on the parent unit's officers—such as tribunes or prefects—for . Nonetheless, they adhered strictly to , including uniform discipline, training regimens, and equipment like the , , and for . This approach ensured rapid assembly while upholding the professionalism of the imperial army.

Roles and Functions

Primary Military Deployments

Vexillationes served as the Roman army's primary mechanism for rapid response to invasions along key frontiers, allowing commanders to assemble forces from nearby legions without depleting permanent garrisons that maintained border security. This approach was particularly vital on the and , where full legions could not be relocated due to ongoing threats from Germanic and Sarmatian tribes; instead, detachments were drawn from multiple units to reinforce vulnerable sectors swiftly via the empire's extensive road network. For instance, during crises such as barbarian incursions, these formations enabled targeted interventions that preserved the overall defensive posture of the limes while addressing immediate dangers. In major imperial campaigns, vexillationes provided essential support by augmenting field armies with specialized contingents, often forming elements to lead advances into enemy territory. A prominent example is Trajan's Parthian War (113–117 AD), where detachments from legions across the empire, particularly from the , were mobilized to bolster the invasion force without weakening frontier defenses; these units played a key role in initial assaults and securing supply lines during the push toward . Such deployments exemplified the flexibility of vexillationes in projecting Roman power over long distances, combining cohorts with auxiliary for sustained operations in hostile environments. The tactical advantages of vexillationes stemmed from their detached status, which conferred greater mobility and adaptability compared to full legions encumbered by fixed bases. These units excelled in ahead of main forces to gather on enemy movements, conducting sieges against fortified positions with concentrated manpower, and executing flanking maneuvers to disrupt adversary lines during battles. Their smaller, self-contained structure—typically comprising around 1,000 and supporting —facilitated rapid repositioning on the , leveraging Roman engineering and for decisive engagements while minimizing exposure to prolonged attrition.

Secondary Administrative Uses

Vexillationes played a significant role in engineering tasks, where detachments from legions and auxiliary cohorts were deployed to construct essential to Roman expansion and control. These units undertook the building of roads, forts, bridges, and frontier barriers, leveraging the army's specialized skills in , , and . For example, a vexillatio from Cohors I Tungrorum milliaria contributed to the construction of forts along around 129 AD at Carrawburgh. Similarly, inscriptions from quarries near record a vexillatio of extracting stone for wall repairs, highlighting their involvement in resource procurement and assembly under oversight. Centurions leading these vexillationes often directed projects like the erection of guard towers (burgi) along the and the restoration of temples, such as Fl. Victor's work on a Dalmatian temple under . In addition to , vexillationes served in escort and capacities for imperial officials, emperors, and critical civil supplies during travels across the . These detachments ensured safe passage through potentially hostile territories, protecting convoys and dignitaries while integrating presence into administrative routines. A notable instance involved C. Velius Rufus, who commanded a vexillatio to escort Commagenian royal hostages (sons of King Antiochus IV) to under Emperor in the late AD, demonstrating their utility in diplomatic and . Vexillationes also guarded shipments as part of the system, facilitating the civil administration's food distribution to urban centers and legions, with detachments from Rhine legions often assigned to secure riverine routes against banditry. This role blurred and logistical boundaries, as seen in broader provincial operations where vexillationes reinforced communication lines and supply escorts. Vexillationes further supported temporary policing in provinces experiencing unrest, performing quasi-civil functions to maintain public order without full-scale military engagement. Detached soldiers, including those in vexillationes, acted as stationarii or beneficiarii to monitor roads, enforce edicts, and suppress local disturbances, often preferred by provincials for their impartiality over native officials. For instance, under governor Junius Blaesus in Africa Proconsularis around 22 AD, Roman forces pursued insurgent leader , combining pursuit with order restoration in tribal areas. In and other frontier zones, such detachments regulated traffic, collected tolls, and handled petitions, as evidenced by papyri from outposts like Mons Claudianus where centurions commanded praesidia for surveillance. These duties underscored the vexillatio's flexibility in blending enforcement with administration, particularly during periods of instability when regular garrisons were stretched thin.

Notable Examples

Inscriptions and Early Units

One of the earliest and most notable epigraphic attestations of a vexillatio from the era comes from the site of in modern-day , where a Latin building inscription dating to the late 2nd century AD records the activities of a detachment from . The text, discovered in a Crusader church but originating from a Roman structure, records a vexillatio legionis X Fretensis as responsible for construction work at the site, likely related to military infrastructure such as a spring enclosure. This inscription highlights the legion's role in securing Judea's road networks following the , with the detachment operating independently from the main base at to maintain infrastructure in the region. Further evidence of vexillationes in frontier contexts appears in an altar from the limes in , erected around 200 AD by a detachment of Cohors I Sequanorum et Rauracorum equitata, a partially mounted auxiliary cohort recruited from tribes in the and Rauraci regions. Found near 10/37 at Schneidershecke, the dedication to Iovi Optimo Maximo by the vexillatio cohortis I Sequanorum et Rauricorum underscores the unit's temporary reinforcement of the frontier defenses during the Severan period. The inscription illustrates how auxiliary vexillationes supplemented legionary forces in patrolling vulnerable sections of the limes, blending local recruits with Roman military traditions. Additional epigraphic finds from the Antonine period (c. 138–192 AD) include milestones that mark the movements and engineering contributions of vexillationes across the empire. For instance, a building inscription from the in attributes construction work on the barrier to a vexillatio of , dispatched from its base in () to support frontier fortification efforts under . These milestones, often bearing imperial names and distances, not only recorded road repairs but also served as , emphasizing the emperor's reach through detached units that facilitated rapid deployment without depleting parent legions. Such artifacts provide concrete evidence of the logistical flexibility of vexillationes in the High Empire, enabling targeted responses to provincial needs.

Late Empire Formations

Following the military reforms initiated by Emperor Diocletian in the late 3rd century AD, vexillationes in the Dominate period were transformed into smaller, permanent cavalry formations integrated into the mobile field armies, typically comprising 300–600 men and classified as either palatinae (elite palace troops) or comitatenses (regional field units). These units emphasized rapid mobility and shock tactics, reflecting a shift toward cavalry-heavy forces to address the empire's expanding threats from internal strife and external incursions. Unlike their earlier, ad hoc nature, late imperial vexillationes were often detached from parent legions but retained nominal ties, functioning as semi-autonomous squadrons under comites or duces. The Notitia Dignitatum, an official register compiled in the late 4th to early 5th centuries AD, documents around 88 such vexillationes across the Eastern and Western empires, highlighting their widespread deployment in praesental () and regional armies. Other notable units, such as the vexillationes comitatenses under the magister equitum praesentalis, were positioned in key strategic areas like and the frontier, underscoring their role in maintaining imperial cohesion. Under Constantine I (r. 306–337 AD), these reformed vexillationes proved instrumental in resolving civil wars and countering barbarian invasions, forming the core of his mobile reserves during victories like the in 312 AD against and campaigns against the and along the in the 320s AD. Constantine's expansions of the incorporated vexillationes into larger field armies of 5,000–15,000 men, enabling swift maneuvers that secured his rule and temporarily stabilized the frontiers. This adaptation marked vexillationes as vital components of the late empire's defensive strategy, bridging administrative listings with active combat deployments.

Impact and Legacy

Influence on Roman Military Reforms

During the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 AD), the faced incessant civil wars and external invasions, prompting emperors to assemble ad hoc armies by drawing vexillationes—detachments—from multiple parent legions to bolster their forces quickly. This reliance on vexillationes, initially intended as temporary measures, often resulted in their permanence as units became embedded in new formations loyal to specific commanders rather than the central authority, exacerbating fragmentation within the military structure. The practice severely weakened parent legions, which lost significant manpower—sometimes reduced to half or two-thirds of their nominal strength—leading to diminished cohesion, exposed frontiers, and increased vulnerability to barbarian incursions. Emperor (r. 284–305 AD) addressed these disruptions by reforming the army to harness the proven flexibility of vexillationes, transitioning from large, static legions to smaller, more mobile units typically comprising 500–1,000 men. These reforms emphasized cavalry-heavy vexillationes as key components of a professional , allowing for rapid deployment against internal rivals and external threats while restoring some centralized control over dispersed forces. By increasing the total number of legions from around 39 to approximately 60 and integrating vexillatio-style detachments into a , Diocletian mitigated the loyalty issues that had fueled civil strife, as units were now more tightly bound to imperial oversight through restructured commands. The economic and recruitment burdens imposed by repeated vexillatio detachments further necessitated these changes, as the constant shuffling of troops strained logistics, depleted regional manpower pools, and inflated maintenance costs amid a shrinking tax base. To alleviate these pressures, Diocletian introduced the limitanei—hereditary border guards tied to specific frontiers through land grants—and the comitatenses—elite mobile reserves drawn from reformed vexillationes—creating a bifurcated army that optimized resource allocation and ensured steady recruitment without over-relying on transient detachments. This system, while not eliminating all strains, stabilized the military by localizing frontier defense and centralizing offensive capabilities, with the expanded army reaching an estimated 500,000–600,000 men.

Continuation in Late Antiquity

In the , vexillationes became a staple of the late Roman army's mobile field forces, evolving from ad hoc detachments into formalized units, often -based, within the as outlined in the , a late 4th- to early 5th-century administrative document listing imperial military establishments. These vexillationes, typically comprising around 500 men, served as tactical reserves supporting frontier , facilitating rapid responses to incursions and enabling communication across provinces. Under emperors like and Constantine, they were systematically drawn from legions for integration into the emperor's comitatus, shifting the term primarily to denote contingents by the Constantinian era, as evidenced in legal codes and papyri such as the document from 297 detailing military detachments in Egyptian campaigns. Vexillationes played key roles in major conflicts against foes during this period, exemplifying their adaptability as expeditionary forces. These deployments underscored vexillationes' function as versatile, emperor-led strike forces in an era of escalating external pressures, including battles like the defeat at the Utus River in 447 AD, where elements of the Roman confronted Hunnic invaders under but suffered heavy losses, allowing further advances into and Illyricum, though often supplemented by allies. By the mid-5th century, the institution of vexillationes waned amid the Western Empire's fragmentation, with many units deactivated or absorbed into successor kingdoms as economic strains and territorial losses eroded centralized command structures. In the West, post-Vandal and Visigothic conquests led to the dissolution of vexillationes tied to provincial legions, as seen in the reduced listings in later Notitia excerpts and the deactivation of vexillationes by the early . Remnants endured longer in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) forces, where similar detachment principles persisted in thematic armies, though the specific terminology faded, evolving into more integrated tagmata by the under Justinian, allowing for continued mobile operations against and . Modern scholarship on vexillationes in reveals significant gaps, particularly in archaeological corroboration beyond epigraphic evidence from the and inscriptions like those at . Seminal works, such as Dietrich Hoffmann's 1969–1970 analysis of the mobile army, remain foundational, but research continues with post-2018 studies addressing auxiliary vexillationes and their ethnic compositions, including analyses of northern frontier defenses and barbarization debates, as seen in Brulet's 2022 publication on Germanic provinces. Scholars have called for expanded research on auxiliary vexillationes, often underrepresented in traditional legion-focused studies, to better understand their tactical evolutions.

References

  1. https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:106031
  2. https://fiav.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/ICV20-28-Schmoger-The-Roman-vexillum.pdf
  3. https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-6267
  4. https://imperiumromanum.pl/en/roman-army/units-of-roman-army/vexillatio/
  5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337706663_The_Vexillationes_of_the_Cohortes_Tungrorum_During_the_Second_Century
  6. https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/notitia-dignitatum/
  7. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vexillation
  8. https://sacred-texts.com/cla/tac/a03020.htm
  9. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html
  10. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24595383
  11. https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/3491
  12. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/hadrians-wall-and-its-continental-hinterland/12569CE593669F90C67DBF8AA506E929
  13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346058753_The_Antonine_Plague_and_impact_possibilities_during_the_Marcomannic_Wars
  14. https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/DD2E452B6EBB7EB2729AA8E6E238296B/S0068246200008023a.pdf/vexilla_veteranorum.pdf
  15. https://casa-kvsa.org.za/legacy/2004/AC47-08-Tully.pdf
  16. https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/10563/1/fulltext.pdf
  17. https://www.academia.edu/2605817/_The_Vexillationes_of_the_Cohortes_Tungrorum_During_the_Second_Century
  18. https://www.academia.edu/33179222/The_Roman_Army_of_the_Principate_27_BC_AD_117
  19. https://the-past.com/feature/roman-writing-on-the-wall-recording-inscriptions-at-a-hadrians-wall-quarry/
  20. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/210597078.pdf
  21. https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2012/2012.09.13/
  22. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110251906.25/html
  23. https://archaeologicahereditas.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/roman_horsemen_against_germanic_tribes..pdf
  24. https://www.limesseiten.de/LIMES/ODENWALD/10-371.HTML
  25. https://www.academia.edu/9593090/Roman_epigraphy_The_Roman_army
  26. https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-7153
  27. https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004252585/B9789004252585_006.xml
  28. https://members.tripod.com/~S_van_Dorst/lrarmy.html
  29. https://publications.dainst.org/journals/chiron/456/5064
  30. http://www.fectio.org.uk/articles/numbers.htm
  31. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/thayer/e/roman/texts/secondary/burlat/2*.html
  32. https://cristoraul.org/BYZANTIUM/Jones_Later-Roman-Empire02.pdf
  33. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=7&article=1082&context=mi&type=additional
  34. https://acta.sapientia.ro/content/docs/diocletians-military-reforms.pdf
  35. https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstreams/11568fcd-7fce-4f4e-ab7a-d8405651be92/download
  36. https://www.academia.edu/39679423/The_Scythian_section_of_Notitia_Dignitatum
  37. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365257551_The_Roman_army_and_military_defence_in_Northern_Gaul_and_the_Germanic_provinces_during_the_Late_Empire
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.