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Ancient Linzi
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36°52′58″N 118°21′19″E / 36.8829°N 118.3554°E / 36.8829; 118.3554

Linzi during the Warring States period
Model of ancient Linzi.

Linzi (Chinese: 臨淄; pinyin: Línzī) was the capital city of the Chinese Qi state. The ruins of the city lie in modern-day Linzi District, Shandong, China. The city was one of the largest and richest in China during the Spring and Autumn period. Upon occupying Linzi in 221 BC, King Ying Zheng of Qin completed his conquest of the Chinese rival states and declared himself the first emperor of China shortly afterwards. The ruins of the ancient city were excavated in 1926 by Japanese archaeologists and in 1964 by Chinese archaeologists.

Layout

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Linzi covered an area of around 668 square kilometres (258 sq mi) with the city built between two parallel rivers that ran north–south, the Zi River to its east and the old course of the Xi River to its west.

Remains of city sewer passing underneath the former city wall

The city was surrounded by a 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) perimeter wall of rammed earth. The city consisted of an outer city and an inner city. The outer city wall reached a maximum of 43 metres (141 ft) in base width, averaging between 20 and 30 metres (66 and 98 ft) in width. The inner city wall reached a maximum of 60 metres (200 ft) in base width. The city had a sewer and water supply system.

The palace was located in the inner city, located in the southwestern corner of Linzi. A large rammed earth platform was found inside the inner city, commonly referred to as the Duke Huan platform. The remains of the platform measure 86 by 70 metres (282 by 230 ft) and are 14 metres (46 ft) high.

"Seven broad avenues, some 20 metres (66 ft) wide and over 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) long, ran north-south and east-west, roughly forming a grid pattern. Four major avenues met in the northeast section of the city. This area yielded the richest cultural remains from the Western Zhou to the Han."[1]

In the Records of the Grand Historian, the population of Linzi in the fourth and third centuries BC was said to be 70,000 households, with at least 210,000 adult males. Scholars today believe this was somewhat exaggerated.[2]

Jixia Academy

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The kings of Qi and the Qi state acted as patrons of the Jixia Academy (ca 315-285 BC) in Linzi, the earliest and largest (in its time) center of learning in China. The academy, possibly named after the city gate (Ji) nearby, was made up of chosen scholars who received a handsome stipend from the government in return for advising the king on government, rites and philosophy. Among the Jixia Academy scholars were Mencius, Xun Zi (who taught Han Fei Zi and Li Si, among others), and Shen Dao.

Tombs

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Sacrificial horse pit

The ruins of the city are surrounded by over 100 tumuli, some as far as 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) away. Many of the tombs around Linzi have been looted in antiquity. In pits near what is considered the tomb of Duke Jing of Qi, over 600 sacrificed horses have been found arranged in two rows.

Erroneous DNA test

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An initial test of corpses from Linzi graves' mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) claimed that their mtDNA was found to be more similar to Europeans than modern Chinese. The mtDNA was reexamined and the initial test was found to be wrong, with results showing European mtDNA sharing no links to the remains found in the graves, and the study says it "highlight that ancient mtDNA data obtained under different sampling schemes and subject to potential contamination can easily create the impression of drastic spatiotemporal changes in the genetic structure of a regional population during the past few thousand years if inappropriate methods of data analysis are employed."[3]

References

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External sources

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  • Allan, Sarah (ed), The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective, ISBN 0-300-09382-9
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ancient Linzi

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from Grokipedia
Ancient Linzi (Chinese: 臨淄; pinyin: Línzī) was the capital city of the ancient Chinese state of Qi, located in present-day Linzi District, Zibo, Shandong Province, on the western bank of the Zi River in the Haidai region of eastern North China. It served as Qi's political, economic, and cultural hub from the 9th century BCE, when it became the capital under Duke Xian, through the Spring and Autumn (770–476 BCE) and Warring States (475–221 BCE) periods, until the city's conquest by the Qin state in 221 BCE, after which it retained importance into the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). The state of Qi itself was founded in the 11th century BCE shortly after the Zhou dynasty's conquest of the Shang, with Lü Shang (also known as or Taigong) as its first ruler, and it grew into one of the most powerful feudal states, achieving under (r. 685–643 BCE). In 379 BCE, the Tian clan usurped the ruling Jiang family, but Linzi remained the capital, expanding to cover over 15 square kilometers with massive defensive walls up to 30 meters wide and a perimeter of 14 kilometers, enclosing administrative districts, workshops, markets, and a royal palace complex featuring Duke Huan's elevated platform (86 meters in diameter and 14 meters high). Linzi was renowned as the of the East for its dense population, estimated at 70,000 households (approximately 210,000–400,000 people) by the 4th–3rd centuries BCE according to the traveler and diplomat Su Qin, and its thriving economy driven by iron smelting—the region's birthplace—salt production along the nearby Xiaoqing River, and diverse handicraft industries including copper, bone, and pottery workshops. As a major commercial and communication hub, it facilitated long-distance trade networks and was the most prosperous city among the Warring States' capitals, supporting advanced infrastructure like water management systems and bustling markets where "wheels bumped into one another" and pedestrians jostled in crowds. Culturally, Linzi was a center of intellectual ferment, hosting the Jixia Academy where scholars from the gathered, fostering advancements in , , and that influenced broader Chinese thought. Archaeological excavations since the have revealed over 30,000 Han-era tombs, more than 20 noble burials from earlier periods, and a massive sacrificial pit containing over 600 horse remains, underscoring the city's enduring historical layers and material wealth.

Historical Background

Establishment as Capital of Qi

The state of Qi was founded in the late 11th century BCE, shortly after the Zhou conquest of the , with (also known as Lü Shang or Taigong Wang) appointed as its first ruler by . Enfeoffed in the eastern region of to secure Zhou control over peripheral territories, established the initial capital at Yingqiu, emphasizing administrative and military consolidation in a frontier area prone to local unrest. This founding, traditionally dated to around 1046 BCE in alignment with the Zhou victory at the , marked Qi as one of the key states in the Zhou feudal system, tasked with defending against eastern "" tribes and facilitating tribute flows to the Zhou court. Linzi emerged as the permanent capital of Qi around 859 BCE during the dynasty, succeeding Yingqiu as the political and ceremonial center after a period of capital shifts, including a brief relocation to Pugu under Duke Hu in the 10th century BCE. Situated in present-day , , Linzi's selection reflected its advantageous position between the parallel Zi River to the west and Mi River to the east, providing natural defenses through riverine moats and access to fertile alluvial plains for and routes connecting the central plains to coastal ports. This strategic location bolstered Qi's early resilience against invasions while supporting economic exchanges in goods and salt, essential for the state's growing influence. Under Duke Huan of Qi (r. 685–643 BCE), Linzi solidified its role as a major political hub during the early Spring and Autumn period, as the duke, advised by Guan Zhong, pursued reforms that enhanced military organization, taxation, and interstate diplomacy. Duke Huan expanded Qi's hegemony through a series of alliances and campaigns, including the restoration of vassal states like Wei and Xing (661–659 BCE), interventions in Lu and Jin successions (661–651 BCE), and a decisive expedition against Chu in 656 BCE that extended Qi's authority southward. These efforts, often framed as upholding Zhou ritual order, positioned Linzi as the de facto center of a coalition of states, elevating Qi's prestige without direct territorial overextension. This foundational prominence under Duke Huan laid the groundwork for Qi's subsequent prosperity in the Spring and Autumn era.

Development during Spring and Autumn Period

During the , the state of rose to prominence under Duke Huan (r. 685–643 BCE), who, with the guidance of his advisor , implemented reforms that centralized administrative, military, and fiscal structures, transforming into the most powerful polity in the Zhou realm. These reforms emphasized efficient taxation, standardized weights and measures, and a professional standing army, enabling to project influence across the Central Plains and establish Duke Huan as the first hegemon. Linzi, as the capital, served as the administrative core from which these policies were directed, facilitating 's coordination of interstate affairs and solidifying its role as a political powerhouse. A pivotal moment in Qi's ascendancy occurred in 651 BCE at the Conference of Kuiqiu, where Duke Huan assembled rulers from states including Lu, , Zheng, and Wei, along with a representative of Zhou King Xiang, to forge a covenant of non-aggression, mutual defense against external threats, and ritual observance of Zhou traditions. This alliance underscored Linzi's emergence as a diplomatic hub, as Qi hosted and mediated these gatherings, extending its hegemony over the eastern states and warding off southern incursions from and northern pressures from Rong and Di tribes. Territorial expansions during this era incorporated much of the into Qi's direct control, with Linzi overseeing the integration of conquered or allied territories like those of smaller coastal polities, enhancing Qi's strategic depth along the . Qi’s economic foundations during this period were rooted in robust agriculture, particularly the cultivation of millet and in the fertile plains surrounding Linzi, supplemented by in the nearby Bohai Gulf and estuaries, which provided essential protein and trade commodities. Early trade networks flourished through Linzi's markets, exchanging salt from coastal evaporators, tools, and textiles with neighboring states, accumulating wealth that funded military campaigns and diplomatic initiatives. This prosperity laid the groundwork for Qi's sustained influence, though it also invited rivalries, as seen in the 589 BCE Battle of An, where Qi's aggressive expansion against Lu and Wei prompted a Jin-led to defeat Qi's forces near modern , highlighting the military ambitions coordinated from Linzi despite the setback. Early scholarly activities in Qi, influenced by figures like Guan Zhong's pragmatic philosophies on , began to attract thinkers to Linzi, foreshadowing later intellectual developments.

Role in Warring States Period

During the , Linzi served as the fortified capital of the state of , bolstered by internal reforms initiated under King Wei (r. 356–320 BCE). King Wei purged corruption by executing high-ranking officials, such as the noble of Dong'a, and adopted a hands-on approach to , which enhanced administrative efficiency and military readiness across Qi, including the defense of Linzi as the political and economic hub. These measures contributed to Qi's military successes, such as the victory over Wei at the Battle of Guiling in 353 BCE, solidifying Linzi's role as a resilient stronghold amid intensifying interstate conflicts. Linzi's strategic importance was starkly demonstrated during the 284 BCE invasion by Yan, supported by allied forces from Qin, , and Han under general . The coalition captured Linzi and over 70 cities, forcing King Min of Qi to flee to Ju, but resistance led by Tian Dan at Jimo persisted, ultimately repelling the invaders three years later through innovative tactics like the fire oxen array, aided by shifting alliances as some states withdrew support. This resilience underscored Linzi's centrality in Qi's survival, with the city's population estimated at a peak of 70,000 households—equating to approximately 210,000 adult males capable of bearing arms—in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, based on accounts by the strategist Su Qin. Qi maintained independence through diplomatic maneuvers until its final conquest by Qin in 221 BCE. Qin king Ying Zheng (later Qin Shi Huangdi) had earlier bribed Qi's chancellor Hou Sheng to advocate neutrality, preventing alliances against Qin; when Qin's general advanced, King Jian of Qi surrendered Linzi without battle, marking the end of Qi's sovereignty and the unification of under Qin. King Wei's earlier patronage of scholars at the Jixia Academy had briefly positioned Linzi as an intellectual beacon, but these efforts could not avert the overarching tide of Qin's expansion.

Urban Planning and Infrastructure

City Layout and Walls

Ancient Linzi was strategically situated between the Zi River to the east and the Mi River to the west, two parallel waterways running north-south that enhanced its natural defensive capabilities by forming barriers against potential aggressors. The outer city encompassed an area of approximately 15 km² and was divided into an outer and inner enclosure, with the outer walls measuring a perimeter of 14 km and reaching a base width of up to 43 m, while the inner walls attained widths of up to 60 m at their base. These rammed-earth fortifications, unearthed through archaeological surveys, underscored Linzi's status as one of the most fortified urban centers of the . Linzi's urban planning followed a grid pattern, featuring seven main avenues—three running north-south and four east-west—each approximately 20 m wide and extending over 4 km in length, facilitating efficient movement and organization within the city. In the southwest quadrant, complex dominated the , including the prominent Duke Huan platform, a rectangular structure measuring 86 m by 70 m and rising 14 m in height, used for ceremonial and administrative purposes.

Internal Features and Amenities

Linzi's internal infrastructure demonstrated advanced , particularly in its and drainage systems. Archaeological excavations have revealed a sophisticated sewer system featuring brick-lined channels that facilitated effective drainage and waste removal across the city. These channels, often constructed with fired bricks and connected to broader conduits, helped mitigate flooding and maintain in a densely populated urban environment. The system was integral to daily , channeling wastewater away from residential and public areas toward the surrounding and networks. Public amenities in Linzi included integrated markets and elevated platforms that supported and civic functions. Marketplaces were strategically located in the northeastern and northern sectors of the outer city, embedded within the gridded street layout to enable efficient in such as metals, ceramics, and agricultural products. These markets fostered economic activity, drawing merchants and contributing to Qi's as a commercial hub. Adjacent to these areas, large rammed-earth platforms, such as the Duke Huan Platform measuring approximately 86 m by 70 m and rising 14 m high, served as venues for public assemblies, ceremonies, and oversight of urban life. The city was organized into distinct residential and administrative divisions, reflecting a structured social hierarchy. Intersecting streets divided the into over ten districts, with governmental offices concentrated in the southern portion of the outer city for administrative . Residential zones featured clustered housing, with archaeological evidence from foundation remains and post holes indicating the presence of multi-story buildings, likely used by affluent families or officials to maximize space in the compact urban core. Water management was enhanced by reservoirs and channels linked to local river systems, including the Mi River, ensuring a reliable supply for domestic use and while integrating with the drainage network. This infrastructure supported a population estimated at over 200,000, underscoring Linzi's capacity to sustain large-scale urban living.

Cultural and Intellectual Center

The Jixia Academy

The Jixia Academy was established during the reign of King Xuan of (r. 319–301 BCE), around the late fourth century BCE, as a prominent state-sponsored institution located at the Gate of Ji (Jixia) in the capital city of Linzi. This academy represented a pioneering effort in royal patronage of intellectual pursuits, drawing scholars from across the Chinese states to foster open discourse amid the intellectual ferment of the . Unlike earlier informal gatherings, it formalized a dedicated space for scholarly exchange, emphasizing the Qi state's commitment to leveraging knowledge for political strength. Structurally, the functioned as a that could accommodate several hundred to over a thousand scholars and their disciples at its peak, providing them with stipends, housing, and resources from the royal treasury to support ongoing debates, research, and textual composition. Senior scholars, often titled as grand masters (shang dafu), were granted high honors and freedom to pursue inquiries without direct state interference, creating an atmosphere of academic liberty rare in the era. This setup not only sustained a diverse body of thinkers but also positioned the academy as a hub for interdisciplinary dialogue, where ideas from competing schools were tested through rigorous argumentation. The academy's curriculum spanned practical and theoretical disciplines essential to statecraft and society, including on and , for warfare and defense, for economic productivity, and for . These topics were explored through lectures, disputations, and collaborative works, such as sections of the Guanzi that address administrative techniques and natural sciences. Prominent patrons like King Wei of (r. 356–320 BCE) and his successor King Xuan actively supported the institution, consulting its scholars for counsel on policy matters and incorporating their insights into governance reforms, such as enhancements to administrative efficiency and military organization that bolstered Qi's regional power. This royal engagement ensured the academy's longevity for over a century, until Qi's by Qin in 221 BCE.

Philosophical Contributions and Scholars

Ancient Linzi, as the capital of the Qi state, served as a vibrant hub for philosophical discourse during the Warring States period, fostering the emergence of key thinkers whose ideas profoundly shaped Chinese intellectual traditions. Among the most prominent scholars associated with Linzi's intellectual environment were Mencius (Mengzi, active 372–289 BCE), who advocated for benevolent governance rooted in humaneness and moral leadership, and Xunzi (ca. 310–235 BCE), who emphasized the transformative power of education and ritual in cultivating virtue. Zou Yan, a leading figure in the Yin-Yang school, contributed cosmological theories that integrated natural cycles with political legitimacy, influencing later interpretations of statecraft. These individuals, often linked to the scholarly gatherings in Linzi, exemplified the city's role in nurturing diverse philosophical voices. The intellectual milieu of Qi facilitated the development of Confucianism variants, Mohism, and Legalism, adapted to the state's context of political ambition and cultural patronage. Mencius, in his eponymous text, promoted a form of rule that prioritized the welfare of the people through policies like tax relief and flood control, arguing that true kingship arises from benevolence rather than , as seen in his famous assertion that "the people are the most important element in a nation." Mohist ideas, emphasizing universal love and utilitarian statecraft, found resonance in Qi's pragmatic governance debates, while Legalist principles of strict laws and administrative efficiency were refined by thinkers like Shen Dao, who advocated for impartial to maintain order. These schools intersected in Linzi, producing hybrid approaches to ethics and politics that addressed the era's turmoil. Xunzi's contributions further highlighted debates on statecraft, particularly his view that is inherently self-interested but can be reformed through rigorous and adherence to rituals (li), which he saw as essential for social harmony and effective rule. In works like the Xunzi, he outlined a beginning with classical texts and culminating in ritual practice, arguing that such enables rulers to embody sage-like and prevent disorder. Zou Yan's school of Yin-Yang extended these discussions by proposing a cyclical theory of the five elements (wuxing), where dynastic legitimacy depended on alignment with cosmic patterns, offering a naturalistic framework for Qi's imperial aspirations. Linzi's scholarly environment, exemplified by the Jixia gatherings, played a pivotal role in synthesizing these diverse schools, blending Confucian ethics with Legalist pragmatism and naturalistic cosmologies, which laid groundwork for the Han dynasty's eclecticism. This fusion, particularly through Xunzi's integrative philosophy, influenced Han thinkers like , who incorporated Yin-Yang ideas into imperial ideology, marking a transition from Warring States pluralism to unified doctrinal frameworks. The lasting impact of these contributions underscores Linzi's significance as a cradle of Chinese philosophical evolution.

Economy and Society

Economic Activities

Linzi served as a pivotal economic hub in the ancient Qi state during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, with its prosperity underpinned by diverse industries and strategic trade connections. Iron smelting emerged as one of the city's primary economic drivers, positioning Linzi as a major production center renowned for high-quality iron implements that supported agriculture, warfare, and craftsmanship. Archaeological evidence reveals workshops dedicated to iron and copper smelting in the northeast and northern sectors of the city, where advanced casting techniques, including the use of clay molds and local resources, facilitated large-scale output. This iron industry not only bolstered Qi's military strength but also enhanced agricultural productivity through tools like plows and sickles, contributing to the state's overall economic vitality. Salt production further fueled Linzi's , leveraging the state's coastal access along the and rivers such as the Xiaoqing. Numerous workshop sites, clustered in northern , indicate organized, large-scale operations that supplied domestic needs and enabled , with salt serving as a valuable exchanged for other goods. Complementing these industries, the minting of in the late marked a significant advancement in 's . Excavations in Linzi have uncovered minting remains, including standardized clay molds and residues, demonstrating unified production techniques with consistent compositions (primarily , tin, and lead from local and possibly imported sources). This , implemented during the Tian era (386–384 BCE), monopolized currency issuance and supported a burgeoning commodities economy in the . Trade networks amplified Linzi's economic reach, utilizing riverine routes like the Mi and Xiaoqing rivers for maritime access and overland roads connecting to other states. These pathways facilitated the export of textiles, from coastal fisheries, and agricultural surpluses, while importing metals and luxury items to sustain urban workshops. At the core of this system lay a robust agricultural base, enhanced by state-sponsored works that optimized water management for staple crops. Millet, particularly foxtail and broomcorn varieties, dominated cultivation in the region's dry , supplemented by as a secondary grain that benefited from improved hydraulic , ensuring and surplus for .

Social Structure and Population

Ancient Linzi's reflected the hierarchical organization prevalent in states, with the ruling family wielding absolute authority over the polity. During the , the Jiang family held the apex; the ruling family shifted to the Tian clan in 386 BCE following their usurpation, maintaining power thereafter. Below them sat the (qing and dafu), who held hereditary lands and advisory roles in , followed by the shi class of scholars and officials who managed administration and . Artisans (gong) and merchants (shang) occupied intermediate positions, with notably elevating merchants' status compared to other states due to its commercial prosperity, as noted in ' critiques of profit-seeking among the elite. At the base were farmers (nong) and serfs, who formed the majority and sustained the urban economy through and labor obligations. Population estimates for Linzi during the 4th–3rd centuries BCE indicate a densely urbanized , with Su Qin's statement recorded in Sima Qian's Shiji indicating 70,000 households and over 210,000 adult males capable of bearing arms, suggesting a total exceeding 400,000 when including women, children, and non-combatants. This density underscored Linzi's role as one of ancient China's largest cities, supported by its expansive walls and . Archaeological and genetic evidence reveals diverse ethnic influences from migrations, as from Linzi burials indicates genetic affinities more similar to present-day European populations than to East Asian groups, suggesting Eurasian influences during Qi's expansions. The role of women in Linzi's urban life centered on family units, where they managed households and contributed to production and duties, as inferred from goods like garments, mirrors, and jewelry unearthed in burials, which signify their integration into familial and economic networks. Elite women occasionally influenced through marriage alliances, though their public roles remained limited by patriarchal norms. Social mobility existed through scholarly pursuits and , which rewarded valor with land grants and titles in Qi's merit-infused system.

Archaeology and Legacy

Major Excavations

Archaeological interest in ancient Linzi, the capital of the Qi state, began with a survey conducted by a Japanese team in 1926, which provided initial mapping of the city ruins but was limited in scope due to the era's political constraints. Major systematic excavations commenced in 1964 under the joint efforts of the Shandong Provincial Cultural Relics Bureau and the Archaeology Department of Peking University, focusing on the core urban areas and yielding foundational data on the site's structure. These efforts marked a shift to comprehensive Chinese-led research, with digs continuing intermittently through the 1970s and intensifying in subsequent decades as part of national heritage projects. Recent excavations, including those in 2022 at sites in Linzi District recognized as major provincial discoveries, and a Han Dynasty pit containing pottery figures of warriors and horses at Shanwang Village, continue to reveal the site's multilayered history. Excavators employed systematic trenching methods to probe the city walls and palace complexes, allowing for the delineation of foundational layers without extensive disturbance to surrounding areas. This approach revealed the perimeter walls enclosing an area of approximately 14 kilometers, with foundations up to 30 meters wide, confirming Linzi's planned grid layout characteristic of urbanism. Palace foundations in the , including a raised platform attributed to measuring 86 meters in diameter and 14 meters high, were also uncovered through targeted trenching, providing evidence of centralized administrative . Industrial zones outside the main walls exposed remnants of , including iron forges and smelting facilities, highlighting Linzi's role as an economic hub with advanced metallurgical capabilities dating to the BCE. The site has faced significant challenges from , particularly in antiquity when many surrounding were plundered, complicating interpretations of funerary contexts briefly noted in broader surveys. Post-1949 preservation efforts by the emphasized state protection, integrating Linzi into national archaeological priorities to curb further illicit activities and support ongoing conservation amid urban development pressures.

Tombs and Artifacts

The ruins of ancient Linzi are encircled by over 100 tumuli, many of which date to the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods and show signs of extensive looting in antiquity. Elite tombs, including those from the 5th century BCE, cluster near the presumed burial site of Duke Jing of (r. 547–490 BCE) at Yatou in Linzi District, , Province, reflecting the hierarchical funerary practices of the nobility. These mound tombs often feature rammed-earth constructions with associated accessory pits for and sacrifices, underscoring the ritual emphasis on provisioning the for high-status individuals. A prominent feature of Linzi's funerary landscape is the large-scale horse sacrifice associated with Duke Jing's tomb, where over 600 horses, primarily young animals aged 5–7 years, were ritually killed—likely by alcohol administration followed by a blow to the head—and interred to symbolize power and mobility in the afterlife. These remains occupy a single elongated pit approximately 210–215 meters long and 5 meters wide, wrapping around three sides of the tomb mound and arranged in two parallel rows with heads facing outward, accompanied by sacrifices of 30 dogs, 2 pigs, and 6 other domesticated animals. Although initial excavations in the 1960s and 1980s uncovered 251 horse skeletons across sections of the pit, geophysical surveys indicate the full scale exceeds 600, marking it as China's largest known equine sacrifice site and highlighting the extravagance of Qi royal rituals during the late Spring and Autumn period. Notable artifacts from Linzi tombs include ritual vessels such as ding cauldrons and lei jars, often inscribed and mimicking styles, alongside jade ornaments like pendants and bi discs symbolizing status and cosmology. Weapons, including swords, spearheads, and fittings, were commonly deposited, evidencing the militaristic society of . A 2000 study (Wang et al.) of from human remains in Linzi graves suggested greater genetic similarity to present-day European populations than to East Asians. However, a 2007 reanalysis (Bennett) showed that the ancient Linzi population is more closely related to modern East Asians, with the original findings overstated due to limitations in early methodologies. In late Warring States contexts, burials with intact vehicles and teams have been unearthed, such as at the Zihedian , where 20 chariots and 69 horses occupied dedicated pits. Hoards of , a spade-shaped unique to and weighing around 28 grams per piece, were also recovered from these burials, illustrating the state's economic prosperity and use of as grave offerings.

Modern Site and Preservation

The ruins of ancient Linzi are located in modern Linzi District, Zibo City, Shandong Province, China, encompassing an area of over 15 square kilometers and serving as a key national cultural relic protection unit. Designated as a Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level in 1961 by the State Council, the site falls under the first batch of such designations to safeguard its historical significance as the capital of the Qi State. Linzi District hosts the primary ruins park, integrating archaeological remains with public access areas to promote conservation and education. Restoration projects since the have focused on reconstructing sections of the walls and developing displays to enhance site integrity and visitor experience. These efforts include the revitalization of the ancient capital area to form heritage routes, such as the "Ancient Capital Heritage" path, which connects key features like the moat and foundations while employing traditional techniques to preserve original structures. The Qi Culture , expanded in recent decades, exhibits relics and provides interpretive displays, contributing to the site's overall maintenance amid ongoing urban pressures. The modern site holds significant tourism value, drawing visitors to preserved elements like the ancient city walls and a of the Jixia Academy, which highlight Qi State's historical prominence. Annual tourism activities, including cultural festivals, underscore Linzi's role as a heritage destination, with attractions integrated into broader Qi culture itineraries to balance public engagement with site protection. Ongoing research in the 2020s employs spatial archaeology methods, such as the Settlement Interaction Model combined with GIS and , to reconstruct ancient road networks and assess their evolution from the through the . These studies, achieving up to 69.64% accuracy in mapping historical routes centered on Linzi, also examine environmental influences like and while addressing challenges from urban encroachment and modern development that threaten the site's boundaries. Such work supports targeted preservation strategies to mitigate expansion impacts.

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