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Aziridine, also known as ethyleneimine, is the simplest three-membered heterocyclic amine with the molecular formula C₂H₅N, consisting of a strained ring formed by two carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom.^[1] It appears as a clear, colorless, volatile liquid with an ammonia-like odor, a boiling point of 55–57 °C, a flash point of 12 °F, and a density of 0.832 g/cm³, making it flammable and miscible with water.^[1] Due to its high ring strain energy of approximately 25–27 kcal/mol, aziridine exhibits pronounced reactivity as an alkylating agent, readily undergoing ring-opening reactions with nucleophiles, acids, or oxidants, and it polymerizes exothermically under certain conditions.^[1] First synthesized in 1935 by Henry Wenker through the cyclization of ethanolamine, aziridine serves as a key building block in organic synthesis for pharmaceuticals, polymers, and bioactive compounds, though its handling requires caution owing to its toxicity.^[2] Aziridine's industrial applications include its use as a monomer in polymerization to produce polyaziridines for adhesives, binders, ion-exchange resins, surfactants, and coatings in textiles, paper, petroleum refining, and cosmetics.^[3] In medicinal chemistry, N-functionalized derivatives are employed as covalent inhibitors for enzymes like glycosidases and in drug design due to their tunable electrophilicity and ability to form bioactive scaffolds via ring-opening annulations.^[2] However, aziridine is highly toxic, acting as a corrosive irritant to the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract, with acute inhalation exposure causing severe pulmonary edema, and it is classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2B) based on animal studies showing tumor induction.^[1]^[3] Modern synthetic methods, such as metal-catalyzed nitrene transfer to alkenes or carbene addition to imines, have expanded access to stereoselective aziridine derivatives, enhancing their utility in complex molecule assembly while mitigating the challenges posed by the parent compound's instability.^[2]

Structure and Properties

Molecular Structure

Aziridine features a three-membered heterocyclic ring composed of two carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom, with the molecular formula

\ce{C2H5N}

. The ring adopts a puckered conformation, but the average bond angles are approximately 59.7°, far below the ideal tetrahedral angle of 109.5° for sp³-hybridized atoms. This deviation introduces significant angle strain, distorting the hybridization and contributing to the molecule's inherent reactivity.^[4] The nitrogen atom in aziridine is sp³-hybridized, positioning its lone pair in an orbital with approximately 25% s-character, which enhances the basicity relative to larger ring amines but remains lower than acyclic aliphatic amines. The pKₐ of the aziridinium conjugate acid is 7.98 in aqueous solution. This hybridization also influences the barrier to pyramidal inversion at nitrogen, which is raised to 19.5 kcal/mol due to the ring constraint, compared to about 5-6 kcal/mol in ammonia or simple amines. In unsubstituted aziridine, this barrier results in rapid inversion at room temperature, but certain N-substituted derivatives exhibit higher barriers, enabling the isolation and characterization of stable invertomers.^[4]^[5] Aziridine shares structural similarities with epoxides, such as ethylene oxide (

\ce{(CH2)2O}

), and thiiranes (

\ce{(CH2)2S}

), all featuring a strained three-membered ring that enforces near-60° bond angles and comparable C-C, C-N/O/S bond lengths around 1.47-1.52 Å. Although not strictly isoelectronic—aziridine has one more valence electron than epoxide—these heterocycles display analogous bonding patterns, with the heteroatom lone pair playing a key role in electronic properties.^[4] Stereochemically, aziridine's rigidity supports cis-trans isomerism in 2,3-disubstituted derivatives, where substituents on adjacent carbons can occupy the same (cis) or opposite (trans) faces of the ring. Monosubstituted aziridines, with a single substituent on one carbon, introduce a chiral center, rendering the molecule chiral and capable of existing as enantiomers, provided the nitrogen substituent does not symmetrize the structure.^[6]

Physical Properties

Aziridine is a colorless, oily liquid at room temperature, exhibiting an ammonia-like odor.^[1] It has a molar mass of 43.069 g/mol and a density of 0.8321 g/cm³ at 20°C.^[1] The refractive index is 1.412 at 25°C.^[1] Aziridine has a melting point of -78°C and a boiling point of 56-57°C, with a high vapor pressure that renders it volatile; this low boiling point contributes to safety considerations in handling due to its tendency to evaporate readily.^[1]^[7] The compound is miscible with water, ethanol, and ether, while showing partial solubility in hydrocarbons.^[1] Aziridine possesses a flash point of -11°C, indicating it is highly flammable.^[1] Thermodynamically, the standard enthalpy of formation is 92.10 ± 0.88 kJ/mol at 298.15 K.^[8] Additionally, aziridine exhibits a dipole moment of 1.89 D, attributable to the puckering of its three-membered ring.^[7]

Spectroscopic Characteristics

Infrared (IR) spectroscopy provides key insights into aziridine's functional groups, with the characteristic N-H stretching vibration appearing as a broad band at 3300–3400 cm⁻¹ due to the secondary amine.^[9] The C-N stretching modes are observed around 1000–1100 cm⁻¹, shifted to higher frequencies compared to larger ring amines owing to the ring strain that increases bond strength.^[9] These features confirm the presence of the strained three-membered ring and allow differentiation from acyclic amines, where C-N stretches typically occur below 1000 cm⁻¹.^[10] Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy reveals aziridine's structural dynamics. In ¹H NMR, the methylene protons (CH₂) resonate at δ 1.3–1.5 ppm as a multiplet arising from geminal and vicinal coupling, while the N-H proton appears around δ 1.0 ppm.^[11] The ¹³C NMR spectrum shows the ring carbons at δ 30–40 ppm, reflecting the sp³-hybridized environment influenced by strain.^[12] Nitrogen inversion, with a barrier of approximately 19.5 kcal/mol, leads to dynamic averaging at room temperature but can be observed as line broadening or coalescence in variable-temperature NMR studies.^[4] Mass spectrometry of aziridine typically exhibits a weak molecular ion at m/z 43 (C₂H₅N⁺•), reflecting the molecule's instability.^[1] Common fragments result from ring cleavage, including the prominent C₂H₄N⁺ ion at m/z 42 and CH₂N⁺ at m/z 28, which arise via α-cleavage or loss of H• from the molecular ion.^[1] These patterns aid in confirming the aziridine structure amid potential isomers like ethylenimine derivatives. Ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy of aziridine shows weak absorption around 200 nm, attributed to an n→σ* transition involving the nitrogen lone pair. This low-intensity band is typical for saturated amines lacking extended conjugation, with ε values below 100 M⁻¹ cm⁻¹. Compared to the parent aziridine, N-substituted derivatives lack the N-H stretch in IR spectra, simplifying the 3300–3400 cm⁻¹ region, while C-N stretches remain similar but may shift slightly due to substituent effects.^[10] In ¹H NMR, methylene protons of N-alkyl or N-aryl aziridines shift downfield to δ 2.0–3.0 ppm, and the ¹³C signals move to δ 40–50 ppm, reflecting increased electron density changes from the substituent.^[11] Mass spectra show higher m/z for the molecular ion (e.g., m/z 57 for N-methylaziridine), with analogous ring-cleavage fragments adjusted for the substituent mass. UV-Vis absorptions are comparable, around 200 nm, unless the N-substituent introduces chromophores.

Synthesis

Historical Methods

Aziridine was first synthesized in 1888 by German chemist Siegmund Gabriel through the base-induced cyclization of 2-chloroethylamine hydrochloride, marking the initial discovery of the compound. Gabriel prepared the starting material by reacting ethanolamine with hydrogen chloride and phosphorus pentachloride to form the chlorohydrin derivative, followed by treatment with ammonia to yield the amine salt. However, he incorrectly assigned the product's structure as the open-chain vinylamine (CH₂=CHNH₂) based on its physical properties and reactivity, a misidentification that persisted until Wilhelm Marckwald correctly identified it as the three-membered cyclic aziridine in 1901 using degradation studies. A more practical laboratory method emerged in the 1930s with the Wenker synthesis, developed by Henry Wenker, which involves the acid-catalyzed formation of a sulfate ester from 2-aminoethanol (ethanolamine), followed by base-promoted cyclization to aziridine. In this two-step process, ethanolamine is heated with concentrated sulfuric acid at approximately 170–180 °C to generate the β-aminoethyl hydrogen sulfate intermediate, which is then treated with sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide at elevated temperatures (around 130–140 °C) to effect intramolecular displacement and ring closure. This method affords aziridine in yields of 50–60%, representing a significant improvement over earlier approaches due to the availability of ethanolamine as a starting material. The reaction proceeds via nucleophilic attack by the amine nitrogen on the carbon bearing the sulfate leaving group, driven by the ring strain in the resulting aziridine. Early implementations highlighted challenges such as side reactions leading to polymerization, which reduced yields, and necessitated careful control of reaction conditions; purification was typically achieved through fractional distillation under reduced pressure to isolate the volatile aziridine (boiling point 56 °C).^[13] Industrial production of aziridine began post-World War II, with Nippon Shokubai establishing a key process in Japan during the late 1940s to 1950s, adapting early routes for large-scale manufacture. This involved the chlorination of ethanolamine to generate 2-chloroethylamine intermediates, followed by base-mediated cyclization akin to Gabriel's method, though optimized for continuous operation and higher throughput. Alternative industrial variants, such as direct catalytic dehydration of ethanolamine over metal oxide catalysts at 350–450 °C under reduced pressure, were also developed by Nippon Shokubai to bypass sulfate intermediates and improve efficiency, though early versions still faced polymerization issues requiring distillation for product isolation. These historical methods laid the foundation for aziridine's use as a precursor in polymer and pharmaceutical industries, despite persistent challenges with yield optimization and byproduct management.^[14] The key transformation in the Wenker synthesis can be represented as:

\mathrm{H_2N-CH_2-CH_2-OH \xrightarrow{H_2SO_4} [H_2N-CH_2-CH_2-OSO_3H] \xrightarrow{\ce{NaOH}} C_2H_5N + H_2SO_4}

H2N−CH2−CH2−OHH2SO4

[H2N−CH2−CH2−OSO3H]\ceNaOH

C2H5N+H2SO4

Modern Synthetic Approaches

Modern synthetic approaches to aziridines have advanced significantly since 2020, prioritizing high efficiency, precise stereocontrol, and environmentally benign conditions to overcome limitations of earlier methods like the low-yield Wenker aziridination. These strategies leverage catalysis, photochemistry, electrochemistry, and biocatalysis to enable scalable production of enantiopure aziridines, often achieving enantioselectivities exceeding 90% ee while minimizing waste and toxic reagents.^[15]^[16] Catalytic asymmetric aziridination stands as a cornerstone of contemporary synthesis, employing transition metal catalysts such as copper or ruthenium complexes to facilitate nitrene transfer from N-sulfonyl imines or sulfonamides to alkenes. This method generates chiral N-sulfonylated aziridines with high enantioselectivity, typically >90% ee, across a broad substrate scope including styrenes and allylic alcohols, as detailed in recent reviews.^[15] The process proceeds via metal-nitrene intermediates that ensure stereospecific addition, enabling the synthesis of valuable building blocks for pharmaceuticals. A representative reaction is depicted below:

\text{Alkene} + \ce{NHR-SO2Ph} \xrightarrow{\text{M (Cu or Ru) catalyst, oxidant}} \text{chiral aziridine}

Alkene+\ceNHR−SO2PhM (Cu or Ru) catalyst, oxidant

chiral aziridine This approach has been optimized for sustainability, using air-stable catalysts and mild oxidants like iodosylbenzene.^[15] Visible-light-mediated aziridination offers a catalyst-free alternative, harnessing photochemistry for homolytic cleavage of the N-Cl bond in chloramine-T to generate nitrene precursors that react with olefins. Reported in 2025, this method achieves efficient aziridination of diverse alkenes under mild conditions, yielding N-tosyl aziridines in good to excellent yields without metal residues, promoting green chemistry principles.^[17] The radical pathway ensures compatibility with sensitive functional groups, distinguishing it from thermal processes. Electrochemical synthesis has emerged as a powerful tool for aziridine formation, particularly through anodic oxidation of amines or imines to produce radical intermediates that cyclize selectively. A 2025 study in Chemical Science describes an azo-free protocol starting from amino alcohols, enabling direct access to aziridines via electrochemically driven amination with high atom economy and no external oxidants.^[18] This technique supports stereocontrol through electrode surface effects and operates in undivided cells, reducing energy demands compared to traditional oxidations. Biocatalytic routes provide enantioselective aziridine synthesis inspired by natural product biosynthesis, utilizing enzymes such as iron-dependent oxidases to catalyze nitrene-like insertions. A 2024 ChemBioChem review highlights enzymatic aziridine formation in pathways yielding antitumor agents like mitomycin C, where sulfoxide elimination or radical mechanisms install the ring with exquisite selectivity under aqueous, ambient conditions.^[19] These methods are increasingly engineered for synthetic applications, offering sustainable alternatives to chemical catalysis. For N-functionalized aziridines, transformations from epoxides via nucleophilic substitution with nitrogen sources or from azides using Staudinger ligation variants have gained prominence. Nucleophilic ring-opening of activated epoxides with sulfonamides, followed by cyclization, yields N-sulfonyl aziridines efficiently, as outlined in a 2025 Angewandte Chemie perspective.^[20] Similarly, azide reduction under Staudinger conditions enables aziridine assembly from vinyl azides, providing access to unprotected or diversely substituted derivatives with minimal byproducts. These routes emphasize modularity and compatibility with late-stage functionalization.^[20]

Chemical Reactivity

Ring Strain and Basicity

Aziridine exhibits significant ring strain primarily due to angle strain arising from its three-membered ring structure, where the bond angles are compressed to approximately 60°, far below the ideal tetrahedral angle of 109.5° for sp³-hybridized atoms. This compression shortens the C–C and C–N bond lengths to about 1.47 Å and 1.48 Å, respectively, compared to typical single bond lengths of 1.54 Å for C–C and 1.47 Å for C–N in unstrained systems. The total strain energy is estimated at approximately 27 kcal/mol, comparable to that of cyclopropane, rendering aziridine thermodynamically unstable and prone to ring-opening processes.^[21]^[4]^[22] The basicity of aziridine is notably lower than that of acyclic amines, with a pKₐ of 7.98 for its conjugate acid (corresponding to a pK_b of approximately 6.0), compared to 9.25 for the ammonium ion from ammonia. This reduced basicity stems from the increased s-character in the nitrogen lone pair orbital, necessitated by the geometric constraints of the strained ring, which makes the lone pair less available for protonation. Upon protonation at the nitrogen, the resulting aziridinium ion experiences heightened ring strain due to the now-tetrahedral nitrogen geometry, further disfavoring the protonated form relative to unstrained amines.^[4]^[23] The nitrogen atom in aziridine adopts an sp³ hybridization for its lone pair, forming a pyramidal configuration, but the ring strain elevates the barrier to pyramidal inversion to about 19.5 kcal/mol. This barrier corresponds to an inversion rate on the order of hundreds of seconds⁻¹ at room temperature, significantly slower than in acyclic amines (where barriers are typically 5–7 kcal/mol and rates exceed 10⁶ s⁻¹). The slowed inversion allows for stereochemical control in substituted aziridines under certain conditions.^[4]^[24] Thermodynamically, aziridine is endothermic with a standard enthalpy of formation (ΔH_f) of +30.3 kcal/mol in the gas phase, reflecting the energetic cost of its strained structure and contributing to its propensity for polymerization, often initiated by nucleophilic attack or thermal conditions. This positive ΔH_f underscores the molecule's instability relative to open-chain analogs like ethylamine.^[8] Density functional theory (DFT) calculations provide deeper insights into these properties, revealing that the ring strain modulates orbital energies, with the HOMO of aziridine raised by approximately 13 kcal/mol compared to strain-free acyclic amines due to hybridization effects. DFT also quantifies inversion barrier heights, confirming values around 18–20 kcal/mol, and highlights how substituents can further alter strain distribution and reactivity profiles through electronic perturbations.^[25]^[26]

Ring-Opening Reactions

The ring-opening reactions of aziridines constitute their dominant reactivity mode, driven by the release of inherent ring strain, and proceed primarily via nucleophilic attack at one of the strained C-N bonds. In neutral or basic conditions, these reactions follow an SN2-like mechanism, wherein the nucleophile attacks the less substituted carbon atom with inversion of configuration at that site, yielding trans-1,2-disubstituted products. This regioselectivity arises from steric considerations, favoring the less hindered position in both symmetrical and unsymmetrical aziridines. For unsymmetrical aziridines, such as 2-methylaziridine, nucleophiles like amines, alcohols, and thiols exemplify this behavior, producing β-amino amines, amino alcohols, or amino thiols, respectively, with high regioselectivity at the primary carbon. Grignard reagents (RMgX) similarly open the ring under basic conditions to afford primary amines (R-CH₂-CH₂-NH₂), often with copper catalysis to enhance stereospecificity and suppress side reactions.89990-7) Hydrolysis under basic or neutral conditions yields β-amino alcohols, a transformation widely used in synthesis. The general equation under basic conditions is:

\ce{Nu^- + \overset{\wedge}{\ce{CH2-CH2-NR}} -> Nu-CH2-CH2-NHR}

with trans stereochemistry. Under acidic conditions, the mechanism shifts to an A-1 pathway involving protonation of the nitrogen, forming an aziridinium ion intermediate that undergoes nucleophilic attack at the more substituted carbon, again with inversion and trans product formation. This regioselectivity contrast enables selective functionalization of unsymmetrical aziridines by tuning pH. Aziridines also undergo ring-opening polymerization, initiated cationically or anionically, to produce polyethylenimines (PEI), branched or linear polymers with amine backbones. Cationic initiation with acids or metal salts opens the ring repetitively at the less substituted site, yielding highly branched PEI, while anionic methods using strong bases like alkyl lithium produce more linear structures from activated aziridines.

Applications

In Polymer Chemistry

Aziridine serves as a key monomer in the cationic ring-opening polymerization to produce branched polyethylenimines (PEIs), which feature a complex structure of primary, secondary, and tertiary amine groups along the polymer backbone.^[27] This polymerization typically occurs in aqueous or alcoholic media under acidic conditions, yielding highly branched polymers with molecular weights ranging from 10^3 to 10^5 Da.^[28] The resulting PEIs exhibit a high cationic charge density, up to 23 mEq/g, which enables their use in applications such as gene delivery vectors due to strong interactions with negatively charged nucleic acids, and in water treatment for flocculation of colloidal particles through charge neutralization and bridging mechanisms.^[29]^[30]^[27] In addition to homopolymerization, aziridine derivatives function as crosslinking agents in polymer formulations, particularly polyfunctional aziridines like NeoAdd® PAX, which are employed in waterborne coatings and adhesives. These polymeric aziridines react with carboxylic acid-functional resins via a two-step mechanism involving protonation of the aziridine ring followed by nucleophilic attack, forming stable β-hydroxy amide linkages that enhance chemical resistance, adhesion, and mechanical properties without requiring elevated temperatures.^[31]^[32] Recent developments have focused on low-toxicity variants, confirmed non-genotoxic and non-mutagenic through standardized assays such as OECD 471 and 487, allowing their use in food-contact-approved systems for packaging, wood, and metal substrates.^[32] Aziridines also participate in copolymerizations to form advanced elastomers, including reactions with carbon dioxide under supercritical conditions to yield aliphatic poly(urethane-amine)s, with isocyanates to form polyureas, and notably with elemental sulfur via step-growth polymerization to produce linear polysulfides exhibiting recyclable adhesive properties.^[33]^[34] These sulfur-based elastomers, achieved through base-promoted nucleophilic ring-opening polymerization of bis(aziridines), demonstrate superior mechanical strength and are highlighted in recent high-impact work.^[34] Globally, PEI production reached approximately 5,000 tons per year as of 2023, supporting industrial applications in paper manufacturing for wet-end chemistry control and in textiles for enhanced dye fixation and fabric treatment.^[35] The high charge density of PEI facilitates flocculation in these processes, improving efficiency in colloidal stabilization and material performance.^[36]^[37]

In Medicinal Chemistry

Aziridine derivatives serve as valuable synthetic intermediates and pharmacophores in medicinal chemistry, leveraging their strained ring for controlled reactivity in drug synthesis and design. The ring-opening reactions of aziridines provide access to β-amino alcohols, which are key structural motifs in active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) such as β-blockers and antiviral agents. For instance, regioselective nucleophilic opening of N-substituted aziridines yields enantiopure amino alcohols used in the synthesis of chiral drugs. Additionally, aziridine-containing alkaloids, including analogs of mitomycin C, have been explored for their DNA-alkylating potential, with synthetic modifications enhancing selectivity and reducing toxicity compared to natural counterparts.^[38]^[39]^[40] In antitumor applications, aziridines exhibit alkylating properties akin to nitrogen mustards, where the aziridinium ion intermediate facilitates DNA cross-linking to inhibit cancer cell proliferation. Stable aziridine analogs of nitrogen mustards, such as those derived from phosphoramide mustards, demonstrate comparable cytotoxicity with improved stability, making them suitable for targeted therapies. Recent advancements in N-functionalized aziridines have yielded bioactive compounds with enhanced potency against solid tumors, including those resistant to traditional alkylators, through optimized ring strain and substituent effects. These derivatives are highlighted in reviews of over 130 aziridine-based antitumor agents, emphasizing their role in overcoming multidrug resistance.^[41]^[42]^[20]^[40] Aziridines also contribute to antimicrobial drug development, particularly through hybrid structures that amplify biological activity. Aziridine-thiourea conjugates have shown potent antibacterial effects, with certain derivatives achieving minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) as low as 16–32 μg/mL against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), surpassing standard antibiotics like ampicillin in some assays. These hybrids disrupt bacterial cell walls via aziridine-mediated alkylation, offering a scaffold for novel antibiotics amid rising resistance challenges.^[43]^[44] Stereoselective synthesis of aziridines is crucial for producing enantiopure intermediates in chiral drug manufacturing, where asymmetric aziridination enables high enantiomeric excess (>95% ee) in the construction of aziridine rings from olefins. Metal-catalyzed methods, including those using chiral ligands, have advanced the preparation of N-functionalized aziridines for protease inhibitors and neurotransmitter analogs. A comprehensive review of these approaches underscores their utility in synthesizing over 50 chiral pharmaceuticals, including HIV protease inhibitors.^[15]^[16] Representative examples include aziridine-based inhibitors of cysteine proteases, such as cathepsins B and L, where the electrophilic aziridine ring covalently binds the active-site cysteine, achieving irreversible inhibition with IC₅₀ values in the nanomolar range. Peptidomimetic aziridine-2,3-dicarboxylates target parasitic cysteine proteases like those in Trypanosoma brucei, showing trypanocidal activity at micromolar concentrations and potential as lead compounds for neglected tropical diseases. These inhibitors exemplify aziridines' versatility, with structure-activity relationship studies guiding optimization for selectivity over human proteases. Overall, aziridines underpin more than 130 reviewed bioactive compounds across therapeutic areas, from oncology to infectious diseases.^[45]^[46]^[47]^[40]

Biological Aspects and Safety

Natural Occurrence and Biological Activity

Aziridine-containing natural products, known as aziridine-containing natural products (ACNPs), represent a rare class of secondary metabolites, comprising only about 0.016% of all known natural products.^[19] Approximately 60 such compounds have been isolated, primarily from microorganisms, plants, and marine organisms, exhibiting confirmed antitumor, antimicrobial, and antibacterial activities.^[19] Notable examples include mitomycin C and ficellomycin from soil bacteria such as Streptomyces lavendulae and Streptomyces satoi, respectively; pleurocybellaziridine from the mushroom Pleurocybella porrigens; and dysidazirine from the marine sponge Dysidea fragilis.^[19]^[48] Additional plant sources encompass species like Petasites japonicus, Allium cepa, and Nicotiana tabacum, while marine derivations include alkaloids from sponges such as Theonella aff. mirabilis.^[48] Biosynthesis of these ACNPs typically involves enzyme-mediated pathways that exploit the aziridine ring's reactivity for structural diversification. Common mechanisms include sulfotransferase-catalyzed sulfation of amino alcohol precursors followed by intramolecular S_N2-type displacement to form the aziridine ring, as observed in the production of ficellomycin and azinomycins by Streptomyces species.^[19] Precursors often derive from amino acids like aspartic acid or serine analogs, with cyclization driven by enzymes such as sulfotransferases (e.g., Fic28 in ficellomycin biosynthesis) and associated PAPS synthases.^[19] Recent studies as of 2024 have identified biosynthetic enzymes for about 10% of known ACNPs since 2021, including Fe(II)/α-ketoglutarate-dependent oxygenases for aziridination in cases like pleurocybellaziridine, though no naturally occurring cytochrome P450 variants have been confirmed for aziridine formation.^[19] In biological contexts, aziridines exert cytotoxicity through alkylation of DNA and RNA nucleobases, forming crosslinks that disrupt replication and transcription, as exemplified by mitomycin C's action in bacterial and eukaryotic cells.^[20] Some ACNPs serve as defensive toxins in producer organisms, deterring predators or competitors via their alkylating potency, though specific insect-derived examples remain limited.^[49] Activity profiles highlight antifungal effects, such as dysidazirine's inhibition of Candida species growth by interfering with fungal cell processes.^[50] Additionally, certain aziridines inhibit enzymes like proteases (e.g., aziridine-2,3-dicarboxylic acid targeting cysteine proteases) and topoisomerases indirectly through DNA damage, contributing to their antimicrobial and antitumor roles.^[48] Recent investigations into optically pure aziridine derivatives, inspired by natural scaffolds, reveal moderate bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus (MIC 50–100 µM) and cytotoxic effects against tumor cell lines such as HeLa and Ishikawa (IC₅₀ 4.6–7.1 µM) with selectivity indices greater than 1, underscoring ongoing challenges in optimizing their bioactivity for therapeutic use.^[51]

Toxicity and Handling

Aziridine is highly acutely toxic, with an oral LD50 of 14 mg/kg in rats, indicating severe risk from ingestion.^[1] Inhalation exposure poses significant danger, with an LC50 of approximately 100 mg/m³ over 2 hours in rats, and it acts as a potent skin irritant and corrosive agent, causing severe burns upon contact.^[1] Chronic exposure to aziridine leads to mutagenic effects and is classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2B) due to its ability to form DNA cross-links as an alkylating agent.^[52] It is also recognized as a reproductive toxin, capable of inducing heritable genetic damage.^[1] Regulatory oversight reflects these hazards: aziridine is designated an OSHA-regulated carcinogen with no numerical permissible exposure limit (PEL), though related monitoring standards apply; it is listed as toxic under the EPA's Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA); and under GHS, it is classified as Danger for flammability, Acute Toxicity Category 2 (oral, dermal, inhalation), and Skin Corrosion Category 1B.^[53]^[54]^[1] Safe handling requires strict protocols, including use in well-ventilated fume hoods, personal protective equipment such as nitrile gloves, safety goggles, and respirators with appropriate cartridges, and storage under inert atmosphere to inhibit exothermic polymerization.^[1] In vivo, aziridine undergoes rapid ring-opening reactions with nucleophiles, forming ethyleneimine adducts, and is metabolized with approximately 50% excretion in urine as metabolites in rats, exhibiting a biological half-life on the order of hours.^[1]

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