Baghban

The Baghban are a Muslim community found in North India and Pakistan. The name "Baghban," derived from Persian meaning "gardener," reflects their traditional occupation as market gardeners, vegetable sellers, and horticulturists. In the Deccan region of India, they are known as Bagwan. Most Baghban are Sunni Muslims and are considered a subgroup or branch of the Kunjra community in some traditions.^[1][2][3]

Etymology

Origin of the Name

The term "Baghban" derives from Persian and Urdu, where it literally means "gardener" or "one who tends gardens," directly reflecting the community's longstanding involvement in horticulture.^[4] This etymology underscores the occupational identity tied to the cultivation and maintenance of gardens, orchards, and vegetable plots, a role that shaped the group's social and economic position in North India.^[1] During the Mughal era, the term "Baghban" appeared in administrative and legal documents to refer to market gardeners and orchard keepers, particularly in regions around Delhi and the Doab. For instance, records from the reign of Shah Jahan (1628–1658) include references to individuals identified by the "tribe Baghban" in land tenancy and acquittance deeds, indicating their recognized status as a professional group managing agricultural lands for produce.^[5] Such usage highlights how the name encapsulated both the profession and emerging community affiliations amid the empire's agrarian economy. While "Baghban" shares linguistic roots with the Hindi term "Mali," which denotes a similar gardener occupation among Hindu castes, the term "Baghban" is specifically used to identify the Muslim community.^[1] This distinction reflects the Persian-influenced terminology prevalent in Muslim contexts, in contrast to the indigenous nomenclature for Hindu groups.^[6]

Related Communities and Terms

The Baghban community is known by the variant name "Bagwan" in the Deccan region, particularly in areas such as Maharashtra and Karnataka, where regional phonetic shifts have led to this adaptation of the term for the same Muslim gardening group.^[7] This variation reflects local linguistic influences without altering the community's core occupational identity as gardeners and vegetable cultivators. The Baghban are considered a specialized branch of the broader Kunjra community, which traditionally engages in vegetable selling and trading; in contrast, the Baghban focus more narrowly on gardening and cultivation rather than general market trading.^[8] In Uttar Pradesh, for instance, the Baghban identify as an independent occupational subgroup within the Kunjra framework.^[8] In Punjab, there is notable overlap between the Baghban and the Maliar (or Malyar) communities, where the terms are sometimes used interchangeably to denote market gardeners, though they may represent slightly distinct subgroups based on local customs and endogamy practices.^[9] This synonymy extends to related terms like Mali, highlighting the fluid occupational boundaries among gardening castes in the region.^[9]

History

Early Origins and Conversion

The Baghban community emerged as a distinct Muslim group through conversions from Hindu agricultural castes, particularly the Mali (gardeners), Kachhi, and Murao, during the Delhi Sultanate and early Mughal periods in North India. According to some traditions, the Baghban retain three endogamous sub-divisions—Kachhi, Murao (or Murdo), and Sani—mirroring these Hindu occupational groups associated with vegetable cultivation and market gardening in the Indo-Gangetic plain.^[6][10] These origins tie the community to pre-Islamic agrarian societies of the region, where such castes formed the backbone of settled farming communities along the fertile alluvial soils of the Ganges and Yamuna river systems. The religious transition was influenced by Sufi missionaries, whose teachings attracted lower-caste agriculturalists seeking social mobility and spiritual solace amid the political upheavals of Muslim rule. Sufi orders like the Chishti and Suhrawardi, active from the 13th century onward, played a role in integrating local customs with Islamic practices, facilitating gradual conversions in rural North India. The Persian term baghban, meaning "gardener" or "one who tends the garden," adopted as the community's name, underscores this era's cultural synthesis, as it replaced or paralleled Sanskrit-derived terms like Mali while preserving occupational continuity.^[1] A notable phase of community formation occurred around the 15th century in Uttar Pradesh, during the later Tughlaq and Lodi dynasties, when Sufi outreach in the Doab and Awadh regions led to increased conversions among agrarian populations, solidifying the Baghban's Muslim identity distinct from their Hindu counterparts. These conversions were often communal, involving entire villages or kin groups drawn to Sufi pirs (saints) who emphasized equality and agrarian piety, thereby embedding the Baghban within the broader tapestry of Indo-Islamic society.

Migration and Settlement Patterns

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the Baghban community, traditionally engaged in gardening and agriculture, undertook significant migrations from regions in Uttar Pradesh, such as Bareilly and Rampur, to Punjab and the Deccan, prompted by the political instability following the Mughal Empire's decline and the disruptions caused by famines and regional conflicts. These movements were influenced by British land reforms, including the Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1901, which listed Baghban among agricultural tribes eligible for land protections and allotments in canal colonies. In the colonial era, Baghban contributed to vegetable trade networks, with communities present in urban centers like Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh and Aurangabad in the Deccan to supply fresh produce to markets under British administration. Their skills in market gardening allowed them to establish communities in these towns, contributing to local economies through the distribution of vegetables and flowers, often integrating with existing trade routes that connected northern India to the south. The partition of India in 1947 affected Muslim communities like the Baghban in Punjab, where communal violence and border changes led to displacements, with many crossing into Pakistan and resettling in West Punjab and Sindh, while those in India consolidated in eastern Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. This shift disrupted traditional settlement patterns but reinforced community networks in the new nation-states, with Baghban adapting their agricultural practices to the altered landscapes.

Geographic Distribution

Presence in India

The Baghban community, traditionally associated with gardening and horticulture, maintains significant concentrations in northern and central India, particularly in Uttar Pradesh, where they are prominently settled in urban centers such as Lucknow and Kanpur. In Uttar Pradesh, the community engages in vegetable cultivation and trade, often identifying as an independent occupational group linked to broader Muslim agricultural castes.^[8][11] Further south, notable presence exists in Maharashtra, especially around Aurangabad, where community organizations and events underscore their established networks.^[12] Karnataka also hosts a substantial Baghban population, recognized under state backward classes lists for their horticultural roles.^[8] Smaller pockets are found in Bihar and Gujarat, where they maintain ties to similar agrarian pursuits and are associated with Muslim other backward classes.^[13] Within India, the Baghban exhibit a marked urban-rural divide, with a stronger urban footprint in Deccan cities of Maharashtra and Karnataka, driven by opportunities in market gardening, wholesale fruit and vegetable trade, and street vending. This concentration in urban areas like Vijayapura in Karnataka reflects adaptations to commercial horticulture hubs, where women from the community often participate as vendors.^[1][7] In contrast, rural settlements in Uttar Pradesh tend to focus on traditional cultivation, though overall, the community's mobility has shifted more members toward urban economies over time. Regional variations include the adoption of the "Bagwan" identity in southern states like Karnataka and Maharashtra, a localized variant reflecting Deccan linguistic influences while preserving the core occupational heritage of gardening. This nomenclature appears in official recognitions and community welfare initiatives, highlighting adaptations among descendants of northern migrants.^[8][6]

Presence in Pakistan

The Baghban community in Pakistan has historical roots in regions like the former North-West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) and Punjab, with significant concentrations in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, where they number approximately 185,000 and engage in gardening and agriculture. In Punjab, around 61,000 Baghban reside, particularly in rural areas focusing on orchard management and fruit cultivation in fertile belts such as those around Faisalabad. Their traditional skills in growing citrus and other crops support Pakistan's horticultural output, with many continuing as cultivators and traders.^[2] Following the partition of India in 1947, some Baghban from Indian regions, including limited numbers from Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, contributed to communities in Pakistani Punjab, forming settlements in urban centers like Lahore. The locality of Baghbanpura in Lahore, historically inhabited by gardeners tending to expansive Mughal-era lands along the Grand Trunk Road, exemplifies their enduring ties to horticulture in the region.^[14] Smaller populations reside in Sindh, comprising about 1,300 individuals associated with gardening and broader agricultural groups, while a diaspora in Karachi engages in wholesale fruit trade and related commerce.^[2]

Demographics

Population Estimates

The Baghban community in India is estimated to number 18,000 individuals, primarily distributed across northern and central states such as Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, and Uttarakhand, according to the latest Joshua Project data.^[1] In Pakistan, the population is estimated at 250,000, concentrated primarily in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (185,000) and Punjab (61,000), with smaller numbers in Islamabad, Sindh, and Balochistan.^[2] The community exhibits annual growth rates of 1.5% to 2%, consistent with broader demographic trends among Muslim populations in South Asia, where urbanization and rising education levels contribute to moderated fertility and migration patterns.^[15] Enumeration of the Baghban remains challenging due to significant overlap with the Kunjra community in official records, as the two groups share occupational ties to gardening and vegetable trading, often leading to combined or misclassified counts in historical censuses and contemporary surveys.^[8]

Linguistic Profile

The Baghban community in northern India, particularly Uttar Pradesh, primarily speaks Urdu and Hindi as their main languages of communication.^[1] In these regions, they write in the Perso-Arabic script when communicating among themselves.^[1] In the Deccan areas of Maharashtra and Karnataka, Baghban exhibit linguistic influences from regional languages such as Marathi, Kannada, and Telugu, in addition to Urdu and Hindi.^[1] This reflects their adaptation to local environments while maintaining Urdu as a key community language. In Pakistan, Northern Pashto is the primary language spoken by the Baghban, particularly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, with secondary languages including Hindko, Saraiki, Western Punjabi, and Urdu across regions like Punjab.^[2] The community overall uses multiple languages across their geographic spread. For Urdu and Persian religious texts, the Nastaliq style of the Perso-Arabic script is standard.^[1] In Indian contexts emphasizing Hindi, the Devanagari script is utilized for written communication. Baghban individuals are typically multilingual, incorporating Hindi, Urdu, and English for trade, social interactions, and broader engagement in multicultural settings.^[1][2]

Economy and Occupation

Traditional Roles

The Baghban community, whose name derives from the Persian term for "gardener," has long been identified with market gardening as their primary occupation, involving the cultivation of vegetables, fruits, and flowers on small landholdings for sale in local bazaars.^[8] This practice centered on intensive horticulture, where community members grew staple produce such as potatoes and onions, particularly in fertile regions like Uttar Pradesh, to meet urban demand.^[8] Their role extended beyond personal plots to serving as caretakers of communal and private gardens, a hereditary profession that distinguished them as a specialized caste within agrarian society.^[16] In maintaining these gardens, Baghbans relied on time-tested techniques adapted to the alluvial soils of the Indo-Gangetic plains, including crop rotation to preserve fertility and prevent soil depletion, often alternating vegetables with legumes or fallow periods.^[17] Irrigation was achieved through traditional methods like the Persian wheel (rahat), an animal-powered device that lifted water from wells or rivers to nourish crops year-round, enabling reliable yields in semi-arid conditions.^[18] These approaches not only supported subsistence but also contributed to local economies by supplying fresh produce to markets. During the Mughal era, Baghbans solidified their identity as stewards of community and royal gardens, functioning as a distinct occupational group responsible for planting, tending, and harvesting in structured estates. This role, separate from broader field cultivation, involved specialized horticultural knowledge passed down through generations, underscoring their integral place in Mughal urban and rural landscapes.^[16]

Contemporary Economic Activities

In contemporary times, many Baghban have diversified beyond their traditional gardening roots into wholesale and retail trade of vegetables and fruits, particularly in urban centers like Mumbai, India, and Lahore, Pakistan, where they leverage their agricultural expertise to supply markets. This shift reflects urbanization and economic pressures, allowing community members to engage in commerce that sustains livelihoods in growing cities.^[1][2] Education has emerged as a key driver of occupational mobility, especially in India, where the Baghban emphasize schooling for both genders, enabling entry into professional fields such as teaching, medicine, and engineering; affirmative action programs for Other Backward Classes further support this access to higher education and government jobs. In Pakistan, community initiatives like educational trusts promote similar advancements, helping younger generations pursue skilled professions amid broader economic opportunities.^[1][2] Despite these adaptations, the Baghban encounter persistent challenges, including land fragmentation from inheritance laws that divide holdings into uneconomically small plots, diminishing agricultural viability, and stiff competition from large-scale commercial farms that benefit from mechanization and market dominance. These issues exacerbate vulnerabilities for smallholder families reliant on farming, pushing further diversification into non-agricultural sectors.^{[19][20][21][22]}

Society and Culture

Social Organization

The Baghban community follows patrilineal descent, with sons inheriting a larger share of assets than daughters and the eldest son often leading the household.^[1] Marriage is predominantly endogamous, confined to the biradari or related sub-groups like Kunjra-Baghban, with unions typically arranged in adulthood through family negotiations and cousin marriages common to preserve alliances and property within the clan.^[1][23] Gender roles are influenced by occupational demands, with women involved in gardening, household production of vegetables, and street vending in markets, while men handle transportation and external trade.^[7] Education levels remain low, particularly among women, consistent with broader trends in Muslim communities in India.^[24]

Customs and Festivals

The Baghban community observes wedding customs aligned with broader Muslim traditions in India and Pakistan, featuring adult marriages arranged through family discussions, often involving cousin unions to maintain endogamy. These ceremonies are typically held at the bride's home, with strong community involvement from relatives and neighbors.^[1] The Baghban participate in all major Islamic observances, including Eid celebrations and fasting during Ramadan.^[1] Their cuisine is non-vegetarian, with avoidance of alcohol.^[1]

Religion

Islamic Affiliation

The Baghban community is predominantly composed of Sunni Muslims adhering to the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence. This affiliation aligns with the broader Sunni traditions prevalent among many Muslim communities in South Asia, emphasizing the authority of the Quran and Hadith in religious practice.^[25] A notable aspect of their Islamic identity involves the veneration of Sufi saints, whom they believe intercede with Allah to fulfill personal requests and provide spiritual support. This practice reflects the pervasive influence of Sufism within Baghban religious life, fostering a mystical dimension to their faith that complements orthodox Sunni observances.^[1] The community historically converted to Islam from Hindu agricultural backgrounds, such as the Kachhi, Murao, and Mali groups, during the Mughal era.^[6]

Community Religious Practices

The Baghban community, primarily following the Sunni Hanafi tradition, integrates Islamic religious observance into their daily lives as agricultural workers and gardeners. They perform the five obligatory daily prayers (salah) and observe Islamic festivals. A central practice is the giving of Zakat, the Islamic pillar of almsgiving. Under Hanafi jurisprudence, Zakat on agricultural produce is 10% for crops irrigated by natural rainfall and 5% for those irrigated artificially.^[1][26] Annual pilgrimages to nearby dargahs, or shrines of revered Sufi saints, are a communal ritual among the Baghban, where families seek barakah (blessings) for fertile soils and abundant harvests. These visits often involve collective prayers, qawwali recitations, and offerings of fresh produce, underscoring the community's reverence for saintly intercession alongside orthodox Islamic worship—a belief rooted in their understanding that saints can mediate divine favor for practical needs like crop success.^[1] Contemporary efforts to revitalize religious engagement include educational reforms blending faith and modernity. The 2007 Baghban Educational Conference in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, organized by community associations, advocated for curricula that combine Islamic teachings—such as Quranic studies and fiqh—with secular subjects like science and vocational training, aiming to foster well-rounded Muslim youth capable of navigating both religious and professional spheres.^[6]

Notable Individuals

Prominent Figures in Politics and Arts

The Baghban community has been represented in local governance in Uttar Pradesh through organizations such as the Falah-e-Baghban Committee, which advocates for the socio-economic rights of its members as agriculturists and gardeners. Leaders like Islamuddin, who served as president of the committee, along with Samsam Ali as general secretary and Shafique Ahmad as secretary, appeared before the National Commission for Backward Classes in 2002 to press for the inclusion of Baghban in the state's list of Other Backward Classes (OBCs), emphasizing their traditional roles in farming and the need for affirmative action to address educational and employment disparities.^[8] This effort contributed to the community's recognition as an OBC in Uttar Pradesh, enabling access to reservations that support farmer rights and minority welfare in post-independence India.

Scholars and Activists

Members of the Baghban community have been involved in advocacy efforts to secure Other Backward Classes (OBC) status in India, with modern educators and leaders highlighting the community's socio-economic challenges to gain access to affirmative action benefits in education and employment.^[8] These campaigns underscore the community's push for recognition as a backward class, noting low literacy rates and exclusion from state and central OBC lists as key issues.^[8] In the realm of scholarship, the Baghban are documented in comprehensive ethnographies of Indian Muslim communities, such as the Global Encyclopaedic Ethnography of Indian Muslim, which details their historical origins, social organization, and cultural practices as part of broader studies on 320 Muslim castes and tribes.^[27] This work contributes to Islamic studies by preserving ethnographic knowledge of occupational communities like the Baghban, traditionally associated with gardening and horticulture.