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Centella
Centella
Centella
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For the Spanish politician, see José Luis Centella.
For the Mexican professional wrestler, see Andrómeda (wrestler, born 2003).

Centella
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae
Subfamily: Mackinlayoideae
Genus: Centella
L.
Species

See text.

Synonyms

Trisanthus Lour.

Habit of Centella erecta

Centella is a genus of 53 species of flowering plants in the subfamily Mackinlayoideae. The genus is sometimes placed in family Araliaceae; however, recent studies utilising molecular data place Centella within Apiaceae.

Species

[edit]
Leaves of Centella erecta

[1]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Centella

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from Grokipedia
Centella is a of about 55 of flowering in the family. The most prominent , Centella asiatica, commonly known as gotu kola, Indian , or Asian pennywort, is a herbaceous, flowering plant characterized by its creeping habit, fan-shaped green leaves, and small white or pinkish flowers. Native to tropical swampy areas of and , C. asiatica thrives in moist environments up to 1,800 meters elevation and has spread to subtropical and tropical regions worldwide, including parts of , , and the Pacific. This clonal creeper has been utilized for millennia in traditional Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine as a versatile remedy, often consumed as a , , or extract for its reputed cognitive, wound-healing, and adaptogenic effects. The plant's pharmacological profile stems from over 100 bioactive compounds, prominently featuring pentacyclic triterpenoid glycosides such as asiaticoside, madecassoside, and centelloside, along with their aglycones like asiatic acid and madecassic acid, as well as , sterols, and essential oils. These constituents contribute to its documented activities, including , , neuroprotective, , and properties, supported by and studies. Traditionally, C. asiatica has treated a range of conditions such as skin disorders (e.g., , eczema, ), venous insufficiency, anxiety, and memory impairment, with modern research exploring its potential in wound repair, cognitive enhancement, and even anticancer applications. Beyond medicine, Centella asiatica holds cultural significance as a "miracle elixir" in ancient Chinese texts and a key herb in the Indian pharmacopoeia since the 19th century, though sustainable harvesting is challenged by overexploitation in its native habitats. Its versatility extends to cosmetology for improving skin elasticity and treating hypertrophic scars, underscoring its role as a bridge between ethnobotany and contemporary pharmacology.

Taxonomy and Description

Morphological Characteristics

Plants in the genus Centella are primarily low-growing, herbaceous perennials, often procumbent or sprawling, with slender, creeping stolons that root at the nodes and can extend up to 1 meter in length. These stolons enable the formation of dense mats, with plants typically reaching heights of 5–20 cm, though some species may grow taller up to 1.5 m in erect forms. The root system is fibrous and shallow, facilitating rapid vegetative spread in suitable conditions. Leaves are long-stalked (petiolate), with petioles ranging from 5–168 mm, and blades that are simple, rounded to reniform in shape, measuring 2–6 cm in diameter, often featuring palmate or reticulate venation. The leaf margins vary from entire to serrate or crenate, and the blades may be solitary or clustered, with cordate bases and no stipules. Flowers are small, actinomorphic, and hermaphroditic or polygamous, borne in simple axillary umbels on short peduncles, with 1–9 flowers per umbellule surrounded by 2–4 bracts. color ranges from greenish-white to pinkish, , or purple, with incurved petals lacking distinct apical lobules and obsolete calyx teeth. The fruits are schizocarpic, dorsiventrally flattened mericarps, 1.5–7 mm long and wide, with prominent primary and secondary ribs, a narrow commissure, and glabrous to pilose surfaces; some exhibit thin wings along the margins. While shared traits define the , variations occur among , including differences in thickness, margin dentation (from entire to deeply lobed with up to 41 teeth), and indumentum (glabrous to pubescent). Some are semi-aquatic, adapting to wetter habits with more robust stolons, whereas others remain strictly terrestrial. The belongs to the subfamily Mackinlayoideae, reflecting its distinctive umbelliferous morphology.

Classification and Etymology

Centella is a within the Apiaceae, subfamily Mackinlayoideae, placed in the order under the class Magnoliopsida (), subclass Asterids, phylum Angiospermae (flowering ), clade (vascular ), and kingdom Plantae. Historically, species now assigned to Centella were often classified under the genus Hydrocotyle within the or sometimes placed in the family due to morphological similarities such as umbellate inflorescences. Molecular phylogenetic studies, including analyses of 18S rDNA and rbcL sequences, have confirmed the distinct placement of Centella within the subfamily Mackinlayoideae since the early 2000s, resolving earlier ambiguities based on vegetative and reproductive traits. The genus Centella L., first validly published by in 1763, has the synonym Trisanthus Lour. and currently includes 55 accepted according to recent taxonomic assessments. The name "Centella" derives from the Latin words centum (hundred) and folium (), likely referring to the plant's tendency to produce numerous leaves in dense growth. Common names such as arise from the coin-like shape of the leaves in many . The type species is Centella asiatica (L.) Urb., originally described as Hydrocotyle asiatica by Linnaeus in 1753 and later transferred to Centella by Ignatz Urban in 1879.

Distribution and Habitat

Global Range

Centella species exhibit a predominantly native distribution, spanning tropical and subtropical regions across , , , the Pacific, and parts of the Americas and Europe. In , the genus is native to numerous countries including , , , , , and , with high species diversity concentrated in tropical zones south of the . Asian native ranges encompass the , (e.g., , , ), and , while extensions reach (e.g., , , ) and Pacific islands such as , , and . Some species occur in temperate areas, such as the region. Introduced ranges of Centella have expanded globally through human activities, particularly ornamental and medicinal trade, leading to widespread establishment in the and additional subtropical areas. In the , species like C. asiatica are introduced in the (e.g., , ), , , and , often in disturbed habitats. Further introductions occur in Pacific islands (e.g., , ) and Atlantic territories (e.g., , ). C. asiatica is particularly noted as invasive in wetlands, such as those in , , and disturbed coastal areas in the Gulf region, where it forms dense mats that outcompete native . Biogeographic patterns reveal centers of diversity in and tropical , reflecting the genus's adaptation to diverse tropical ecosystems. Disjunct distributions in the southern hemisphere, from to and parts of , suggest ancient dispersal mechanisms, potentially tied to historical continental connections, though modern spreads are largely human-mediated via trade routes established from the onward.

Environmental Preferences

Centella species thrive in moist, sandy or clay-rich soils, with a preferred range of 5.0 to 7.5 that supports nutrient uptake and development. These plants tolerate poorly drained conditions to facilitate their semi-aquatic tendencies but are sensitive to extreme waterlogging, which can lead to and reduced vigor. The genus favors tropical to subtropical climates, where optimal temperatures range from 20°C to 30°C promote robust growth and production. High humidity levels, often exceeding 70%, are essential to prevent and mimic their native habitats. While most are frost-sensitive, certain ones, such as , can endure light frost down to -5°C for short periods. In terms of and , Centella accommodates partial shade to full sun exposure, though filtered in humid understories enhances leaf expansion and . Many exhibit semi-aquatic adaptations, flourishing along riverbanks, in marshes, and wetlands where consistent —without stagnation—sustains their creeping habits. Centella demonstrates ecological adaptations including rapid colonization of disturbed, moist sites via stolons, enabling quick establishment in dynamic environments. Allelopathic compounds released by the roots inhibit nearby competitors, particularly in saturated soils, conferring a competitive edge in wet ecosystems. Limitations include intolerance to arid conditions, where rapidly impairs growth, and sensitivity to heavy , as the plants readily absorb contaminants from and . Some species are confined to lowlands below 2000 m altitude, beyond which cooler temperatures and reduced humidity hinder survival.

Species Diversity

List of Accepted Species

The genus Centella comprises approximately 55 accepted species according to (as of 2025), with ongoing taxonomic revisions based on molecular phylogenetic studies that have resolved many historical synonyms since 2000. Approximately 20 names remain provisionally accepted pending further clarification. A comprehensive revision in 1995 recognized 45 , with subsequent additions including endemics such as C. gypsophila Humbert from . The majority of species are distributed in the Old World tropics, particularly in Africa, Asia, and Australia, with a few in the New World; most exhibit a creeping habit typical of the genus. Below is an alphabetical list of accepted species with authorities, drawn from the 1995 revision and updated databases (synonyms noted where resolved post-revision). This list includes species from the 1995 revision and select updates; for a full current list, refer to Plants of the World Online.
SpeciesAuthorityKey Notes/Synonyms
Centella affinis(Eckl. & Zeyh.) Adamson-
Centella alpina(Eckl. & Zeyh.) M. Schubert & B.-E. van Wyk-
Centella annuaM. Schubert & B.-E. van WykNew species described in revision
Centella asiatica(L.) Urb.Type species; synonym: Hydrocotyle asiatica L.
Centella brachycarpaM. Schubert & B.-E. van WykNew species
Centella calcariaM. Schubert & B.-E. van WykNew species
Centella calliodus(Cham. & Schltdl.) -
Centella capensis(L.) Domin-
Centella cochlearia(Domin) Adamson-
Centella cordata(Thunb.) AdamsonElevated from varietal status
Centella crenataM. Schubert & B.-E. van WykNew species
Centella cryptocarpaM. Schubert & B.-E. van WykNew species
Centella debilis(Eckl. & Zeyh.) -
Centella difformis(Eckl. & Zeyh.) AdamsonSynonym: difformis Eckl. & Zeyh.
Centella dolichocarpaM. Schubert & B.-E. van WykNew species
Centella erecta(L.f.) Fernald-
Centella eriantha(A.Rich.) -
Centella flexuosa(Eckl. & Zeyh.) -
Centella fourcadeiAdamsonPossible hybrid
Centella fusca(Eckl. & Zeyh.) AdamsonSynonyms: fusca, H. trichophylla
Centella glabra(Adamson) A.Pillai & S.MuraleedharanPost-revision addition
Centella glabrataL.Synonym: glabrata (L.) L.f.
Centella glaucaM. Schubert & B.-E. van WykNew species; related to C. macrocarpa
Centella graminifolia(Burm.f.) AdamsonVarieties include var. graminifolia, var. natalensis
Centella gymnocarpaM. Schubert & B.-E. van WykNew species
Centella gypsophilaHumbertEndemic to ; post-revision
Centella lanataCompton-
Centella linifolia(L.f.) -
Centella longifolia(Adamson) M. Schubert & B.-E. van WykElevated from C. montana var. longifolia
Centella macrocarpa(A.Rich.) AdamsonTransitional with C. virgata
Centella macrodus(Spreng.) B.L. Burtt-
Centella montana(Cham. & Schltdl.) Domin-
Centella obtriangularisCannon-
Centella pilosaM. Schubert & B.-E. van WykNew species; possible hybrid
Centella pottebergensisAdamson-
Centella restioidesAdamson-
Centella rigescens(Eckl. & Zeyh.) M. Schubert & B.-E. van WykReinstated species
Centella rotundifolia(Adamson) M. Schubert & B.-E. van WykElevated to species rank
Centella rupestris(Eckl. & Zeyh.) AdamsonSynonym: rupestris Eckl. & Zeyh.
Centella sessilis(L.) FernaldSynonym: C. didymocarpa
Centella stenophyllaAdamson-
Centella ternataM. Schubert & B.-E. van WykNew species
Centella thesioidesM. Schubert & B.-E. van WykNew species
Centella tridentata(L.f.) DominVarieties include var. tridentata, var. litoralis
Centella triloba(Thunb.) -
Centella umbellataM. Schubert & B.-E. van WykNew species
Centella villosaL.Synonyms: C. lasiophylla, C. scabra
Centella virgata(L.f.) Transitional with C. macrocarpa

Notable Species

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. is the most prominent and widely distributed species in the , occurring pantropically in damp, lowland habitats across tropical and subtropical regions, including wetlands where it can form dense mats and become invasive in non-native areas. This creeping is the primary focus of research within the genus, comprising the vast majority of studies due to its longstanding use in for conditions like , with asiaticoside identified as a key bioactive triterpenoid compound. Centella erecta (L.f.) Fernald represents a deviation from the typical sprawling growth form of the , exhibiting an upright as a low-growing with heart-shaped leaves and clusters arising from nodes. Native to tropical and subtropical regions of the , particularly wetlands in the , it shares ecological preferences with other Centella species but is less documented, with local significance for its potential in traditional remedies similar to C. asiatica. In , Centella cordifolia (Hook.f.) Nannf., known as swamp , is a notable endemic adapted to moist coastal dunes, floodplains, and swamps in southern regions such as Victoria and . This trailing perennial features round to heart-shaped leaves and serves as a minor ornamental groundcover in boggy garden settings, contributing to local in ecosystems. Comparative analyses indicate that C. asiatica dominates genus-wide research, accounting for over 80% of publications on Centella and , while species like C. erecta and C. cordifolia share similar triterpenoid profiles but receive far less attention due to narrower distributions. Among rarer taxa, Centella gypsophila Humbert stands out as a threatened endemic to , vulnerable to habitat loss.

Ecology and Biology

Growth and Reproduction

Centella species are perennial herbaceous plants characterized by a life cycle that emphasizes vegetative persistence over rapid turnover. They exhibit chromosome numbers of 2n = 18–54, reflecting diploid and polyploid forms with intraspecific variation supporting long-term clonal populations. The primary mode of expansion involves horizontal growth through slender, creeping stolons that root at nodes, forming interconnected mats that enhance survival in moist environments. This vegetative strategy allows for efficient resource allocation, with stolons extending up to 2.5 meters and producing adventitious roots that anchor and nourish new ramets. Sexual reproduction occurs via small, inconspicuous flowers arranged in umbels, typically producing 3-6 flowers per node across 1-4 umbels. These actinomorphic blooms, measuring less than 3 mm and ranging from white to pink-purple, are self-compatible and predominantly self-pollinated, though they attract crawling insects such as ants and flies for occasional cross-pollination. Flowering can happen year-round in tropical settings, but seed production is limited by low viability (often 20-30% germination) and poor fruit set, which favors reliance on asexual propagation over seedling establishment. The mechanisms of seed dispersal in Centella species remain poorly studied. Asexual reproduction dominates through stolon fragmentation, where detached segments with nodes readily regenerate via adventitious roots, enabling rapid clonal spread without bulbils or specialized structures. This process supports biomass accumulation primarily through horizontal expansion, with plants achieving maturity and substantial mat coverage (up to several square meters) within 2-4 months under favorable conditions. In tropical habitats, Centella remains , maintaining foliage year-round, though some populations experience seasonal dieback during dry periods, resuming growth with moisture return.

Interactions with Other Organisms

Centella species, particularly C. asiatica, exhibit various ecological interactions that influence their persistence in and moist habitats. Pollination primarily occurs through , though cross-pollination is facilitated by floral visitors including Diptera (flies) and (bees and wasps), which are attracted to the small, inconspicuous flowers. These insects contribute to and geitonogamous selfing, enhancing in populations. Herbivory on Centella involves both vertebrates and . , such as ruminants, browse on C. asiatica foliage, utilizing it as a source due to its and , which can lead to in pastoral areas. Insect herbivores include (), which colonize leaves and stems, potentially vectoring diseases, and caterpillars like , which feed on foliage under laboratory conditions. Defensive triterpenoids, such as asiatic acid and madecassic acid, serve as phytoanticipins that deter certain insect pests and microbial herbivores by disrupting their feeding or growth, though these compounds may paradoxically attract specialist herbivores like that tolerate or exploit them. Symbiotic relationships with microbes play a key role in Centella's adaptation to nutrient-poor . Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), such as from the , form associations with , enhancing and uptake, which improves growth and triterpenoid production in stressful conditions. These symbioses are particularly beneficial in wetlands with low fertility, increasing biomass and . As an in introduced regions, C. asiatica impacts native through competitive exclusion and chemical interference. It outcompetes native wetland by rapid stoloniferous spread and allelopathic effects from aqueous leaf extracts, which inhibit seed germination, shoot, and growth in like (Pennisetum typhoides) and (Vigna unguiculata). This leads to reduced in invaded wetlands, as seen in Pacific islands where it forms dense mats, displacing indigenous vegetation and altering structure. Centella is susceptible to several pathogens, particularly in saturated soils. Fungal rots, such as white rot caused by Sclerotium rolfsii, affect stems and roots in wet conditions, leading to wilting and plant death. Other fungi like Septoria centellae cause leaf spots, while oomycete pathogens such as Pythium spp. contribute to root rot in overly moist environments, exacerbating decay in high-humidity habitats. Viral infections are rarely documented, with limited records suggesting low susceptibility compared to fungal threats.

Human Uses

Medicinal Applications

Centella asiatica is the primary species utilized for medicinal purposes within the genus, owing to its rich profile of bioactive compounds. Key phytochemicals include pentacyclic triterpenoids such as asiaticoside, madecassoside, asiatic acid, and madecassic acid, alongside like and . Approximately 124 chemical compounds have been isolated and identified from C. asiatica, encompassing triterpenoids, polyphenols, essential oils, and alkaloids, which contribute to its pharmacological effects. In systems, Centella has been employed for and treating skin conditions, including and eczema in practices. It is revered as "Brahmi" in for cognitive enhancement and memory improvement. In Chinese medicine, it serves as an agent for conditions like fever and . These uses stem from its historical application across for promoting tissue repair and reducing inflammation. Modern research highlights its topical applications for and scars, where asiaticoside stimulates synthesis and proliferation to aid healing. Oral administration has shown potential in alleviating anxiety through effects and improving in venous insufficiency. Recent studies as of 2025 also indicate benefits in improving quality and quantity, particularly in aged populations, via neuroprotective mechanisms. Additionally, uses have expanded for treating skin diseases, demonstrating , , and moisturizing properties. However, a 2024 review indicates risks of liver toxicity with prolonged high-dose use, including rare cases of . Common forms include standardized extracts containing 10% asiaticoside, administered orally at 60–120 mg daily or topically in creams at 0.5–5% concentration. Contraindications encompass due to insufficient safety and reactions like . from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) supports promising outcomes in dermatological applications, such as enhanced wound closure and reduced formation. Systematic reviews, however, find insufficient high-quality for cognitive enhancement claims, with mixed results on memory and alertness.

Culinary and Other Traditional Uses

Centella asiatica leaves are utilized in various culinary preparations across , often valued for their slightly bitter flavor that is typically balanced with or other ingredients. In , the leaves are a key component of kola kenda, a traditional herbal porridge made by grinding the herb with raw rice and simmering it in diluted , commonly consumed as a nutritious to support child health. Similarly, in , fresh leaves are incorporated into nam prik or sour chopped meat salads (yam), where their bitterness complements spicy and tangy elements, while the juice is extracted for thirst-quenching drinks. Regional traditions highlight diverse applications of the plant. In (Burma), young leaves known as myin-hkwa are eaten raw in fresh salads, deep-fried as tempura-like snacks, or added to soups with roselle for a tangy flavor profile. features the leaves in salads or fresh preparations mixed with , and they are also brewed into herbal teas or drinks for daily consumption. Beyond food, serves ornamental purposes as a low-growing, ground cover in shaded, moist settings, forming dense mats that suppress weeds and enhance in tropical regions. The plant also demonstrates potential in , effectively accumulating such as lead from contaminated soils, with studies showing tolerance and uptake in roots and shoots without significant growth inhibition. In Hindu traditions tied to , it holds ritual significance as a symbol of , incorporated into ceremonies promoting and mental clarity, drawing from its ancient classification as a herb. Nutritionally, Centella asiatica is low in calories (approximately 44 kcal per 100 g fresh leaves) and rich in vitamins, including (7 mg/100 g) and such as B1 (0.09 mg/100 g), alongside minerals like calcium (171 mg/100 g) and iron (5.6 mg/100 g), making it a valuable addition to diets for and overall nourishment in traditional practices. Its historical use dates back to 1st-century texts like the , where it is described as promoting vitality and longevity through rejuvenative properties.

Cultivation and Conservation

Propagation Methods

Centella asiatica is primarily propagated vegetatively through stem cuttings taken from stolons or nodes, a method preferred for both commercial and home cultivation due to its reliability and production of superior plants compared to those from seeds. These cuttings, typically 5-10 cm long with roots or nodes, are planted directly in moist, well-drained soil, where they root within 1-2 weeks under warm, humid conditions. This approach achieves high establishment rates, often exceeding 90% in suitable environments, and allows for rapid clonal multiplication. Seed propagation is less common owing to the plant's low natural rates, typically 10-20% for fresh sown on the surface, as exposure is required to break . occurs in 14-21 days under controlled moist conditions, though viability decreases rapidly with storage; pretreatments such as (GA3) at 1 mg/L can improve rates to over 80% by alleviating . , either mechanical or chemical, further enhances seed coat permeability and success in challenging conditions. For optimal growth, are spaced at 30 cm intervals to accommodate their creeping , with application of balanced fertilizers like NPK 10-10-10 at 50-100 kg/ha to support vigorous production. Leaves can be harvested starting 8 weeks after planting, with multiple cuts possible annually; hydroponic systems show promise in tropical regions, enabling year-round cultivation with solutions at EC 0.9 dS/m and pH 5.6, yielding comparable to soil-based methods. In commercial settings, techniques, such as temporary immersion systems (TIS) using , produce disease-free stock for mass , achieving up to 3.6 shoots per explant and 100% survival after 5 weeks. These methods support yields of 5-10 tons of fresh per per year for medicinal varieties, with elite accessions reaching 13-14 tons/ha under optimized conditions. Challenges in include managing the plant's potential invasiveness through physical barriers around planting beds to prevent unwanted spread, particularly in non-native areas where it can become weedy. relies on organic approaches, such as neem-based formulations, to target common insects like and mites without residues affecting medicinal quality.

Threats and Status

Centella species face significant conservation challenges, primarily due to habitat loss driven by , , and in tropical regions where they are native. These activities degrade the and riparian ecosystems essential for their growth, leading to fragmentation and reduction of suitable habitats. Additionally, overharvesting for medicinal purposes poses a major threat, particularly for C. asiatica in biodiversity hotspots like and , where wild populations are heavily exploited to meet global demand for herbal products. While many Centella species exhibit invasive tendencies outside their native ranges, C. asiatica is classified as a high-risk invasive in parts of the and , where it forms dense mats that smother native vegetation and reduce . In the US, it is reported as invasive in several states and national parks, altering dynamics in marshes and floodplains. In , introduced populations can proliferate in moist areas, competing with indigenous flora. Regarding conservation status, most Centella species have not been formally assessed by the IUCN, reflecting limited data on their global populations. C. asiatica is categorized as Least Concern globally due to its wide distribution, though it is considered vulnerable in specific local contexts affected by intense harvesting and habitat pressures. Endemic species, such as C. cryptocarpa in , are listed as Critically Rare on regional red lists, highlighting risks to narrow-range from habitat specialization. Conservation efforts include protection within reserves, such as those in the of , where C. asiatica occurs in protected areas to mitigate loss. The promotes sustainable harvesting through Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACP) for medicinal plants like Centella, emphasizing selective collection and restoration to prevent depletion. exacerbates these threats, with models predicting range shifts and contractions due to drying and altered precipitation patterns, potentially reducing suitable habitats by disrupting hydrological cycles.

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