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Centella asiatica
Centella asiatica
Centella asiatica
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This article is about Asiatic pennywort. For Virginia pennywort, see Obolaria.

Centella asiatica
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae
Genus: Centella
Species:
C. asiatica
Binomial name
Centella asiatica
Synonyms[2]

Hydrocotyle asiatica L.
Trisanthus cochinchinensis Lour.

Centella asiatica, commonly known as Indian pennywort, Asiatic pennywort, spadeleaf, coinwort or gotu kola,[3] is a herbaceous, perennial plant in the flowering plant family Apiaceae.[2] It is native to tropical regions of Africa, Asia, Australia, and islands in the western Pacific Ocean.[2][4][5][6] It is consumed as a culinary vegetable and is used in traditional medicine.[2]

Description

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Centella grows in temperate and tropical swampy areas in many regions of the world.[2] The stems are slender, creeping stolons, green to reddish-green in color, connecting plants to each other.[2] It has long-stalked, green leaves; the leaf blade has a rounded apex, a smooth texture and palmately netted veins;[2] the leaf stalk is broadened at the base into a leaf-sheath. The rootstock consists of rhizomes, growing vertically down. They are cream in color and covered with root hairs.[2]

The flowers are white or crimson in color, born in small, rounded bunches (umbels) near the surface of the soil.[2] Each flower is partly enclosed in two green bracts. The hermaphrodite flowers are minute in size, less than 3 mm (0.12 in), with five to six corolla lobes per flower. Each flower bears five stamens and two styles. The fruit are densely reticulate, distinguishing it from species of Hydrocotyle which have smooth, ribbed or warty fruit.[6] The crop matures in three months, and the whole plant, including the roots, is harvested manually. It is a highly invasive plant, rated as "high risk".[2] Centella has numerous common names in its regions of distribution.[2]

Triterpene compounds of Centella asiatica

Ecology

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Centella asiatica is indigenous to the Indian subcontinent (including Sri Lanka), Southeast Asia, parts of Australia, and wetland regions of the Southeastern US.[7][8] Because the plant is aquatic, it is especially sensitive to biological and chemical pollutants in the water, which may be absorbed into the plant. It can be cultivated in drier soils, including sandy loam,[citation needed] as long as they are watered regularly enough (such as in a home garden arrangement).[9]

Composition

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Centella contains pentacyclic triterpenoids and trisaccharide derivatives, including asiaticoside, brahmoside, asiatic acid, and brahmic acid (madecassic acid). Other constituents include centellose, centelloside, and madecassoside.[10][11][12] Approximately 124 chemical compounds have been isolated and identified from Centella asiatica.[13]

Uses

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Culinary

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In Burmese cuisine, raw pennywort is used as the main constituent in a salad mixed with onions, crushed peanuts, bean powder and seasoned with lime juice and fish sauce.[14] Centella is used as a leafy green in Sri Lankan cuisine, being the predominantly locally available leafy green, where it is called gotu kola or vallaarai. It is most often prepared as malluma, a traditional accompaniment to rice and vegetarian dishes, such as lentils, and jackfruit or pumpkin curry. It is considered nutritious. In addition to finely chopped gotu kola plants, the gotu kola malluma may be eaten with grated coconut, diced shallots, lime (or lemon) juice, and sea salt. Additional ingredients are finely chopped green chilis, chili powder, turmeric powder, or chopped carrots. The Centella fruit-bearing structures are discarded from the gotu kola malluma due to their intense bitter taste. A variation of porridge known as kola kanda is also made with gotu kola in Sri Lanka. Gotu kola kanda or Vallaarai kanji is made with well-boiled red rice with some extra liquid, coconut milk first extract, and gotu kola purée. The porridge is accompanied with jaggery for sweetness. Centella leaves are also used in modern sweet pennywort drinks and herbal teas. In addition the leaves are served stir-fried whole in coconut oil, or cooked in coconut milk with garlic or dhal.

Bai bua bok as a beverage, Thailand

In Indonesia, the leaves are used for sambai oi peuga-ga, an Aceh type of salad, and is also mixed into asinan in Bogor. In Cambodia, Vietnam and Thailand, this leaf is used for preparing a drink or can be eaten in raw form in salads or cold rolls. In Bangkok, vendors in the Chatuchak Weekend Market sell it alongside coconut, roselle, chrysanthemum, orange and other health drinks. In Malay cuisine it is known as pegaga, and the leaves of this plant are used for ulam, a type of vegetable salad.[2] C. asiatica is widely used in various Indian regional cuisines. In Bangladesh and India (specifically in West Bengal), Centella is called Thankuni Pata and used in various dishes, one of the most appetising of which is the pakora-like snack called Thankuni Patar Bora; made of mashed Centella, lentils, julienned onion and green chilli.

Traditional medicine

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In traditional medicine, C. asiatica has been used with the intent to treat various disorders, dermatological conditions,[15] and minor wounds,[2] although clinical efficacy and safety have not been proven in clinical research.[16][17]

Contact dermatitis and skin irritation can result from topical application.[16] Drowsiness may occur after consuming it.[16]

Potential for liver damage

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A 2024 review indicated that consuming foods or dietary supplements containing Centella asiatica may cause liver disease.[18] There have been case reports of liver disease associated with use over multiple weeks.[16][19]

Agricultural use

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In the context of phytoremediation, C. asiatica is a potential phytoextraction tool owing to its ability to take up and translocate metals from root to shoot when grown in soils contaminated by heavy metals.[20]

[edit]
  • Emerging flowers
    Emerging flowers
  • Close-up of flower
    Close-up of flower
  • Centella asiatica, India
    Centella asiatica, India
  • A patch of Centella asiatica or pegaga in Malay
    A patch of Centella asiatica or pegaga in Malay

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Centella asiatica

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, commonly known as gotu kola, Indian pennywort, or Asiatic pennywort, is a herbaceous, flowering plant in the family. Native to tropical regions of , , , and the western , the plant features slender, creeping stolons that root at the nodes, forming dense mats with orbicular to reniform leaves arranged in rosettes, and produces small, white to pinkish flowers in umbels. It thrives in moist, marshy habitats such as swamps, paddy fields, ditches, and wet meadows, often up to 1,800 meters in elevation. For centuries, C. asiatica has been a staple in systems, including and , where it is revered as a or rejuvenative tonic for promoting longevity, enhancing cognitive function, and treating skin ailments. It has been used to address wounds, burns, eczema, , , varicose ulcers, and venous insufficiency, as well as for its purported , , and memory-boosting effects. In folk practices across and , extracts from its leaves and stems are applied topically or consumed orally to support healing and vitality. Contemporary research has substantiated many of these applications, identifying key triterpenoids like asiaticoside, madecassoside, and asiatic acid as bioactive compounds responsible for its pharmacological actions. Studies demonstrate its , , , and collagen-stimulating properties, making it effective for , burn recovery, and dermatological conditions such as and . Additionally, preclinical and clinical evidence supports neuroprotective benefits, including protection against in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, with low profiles in therapeutic doses. C. asiatica is now incorporated into modern , supplements, and pharmaceuticals for , cognitive support, and circulatory improvement.

Taxonomy and morphology

Taxonomy

Centella asiatica is a species within the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order , family , genus , and species C. asiatica (L.) Urb. The reflects its current placement in the family, characterized by umbelliferous inflorescences shared with related genera. The species was first described by as Hydrocotyle asiatica in 1753, based on specimens from Asian wetlands. In the late , Ignatz Urban transferred it to the genus in 1879, distinguishing it from due to differences in fruit morphology and structure, a reclassification that solidified its taxonomic identity amid evolving understandings of subfamilies. This shift from the genus, where it was initially grouped for superficial vegetative similarities, marked a key historical adjustment in its classification. Notable synonyms include asiatica L. and Trisanthus cochinchinensis Lour., reflecting varied historical naming conventions across regions and early botanical surveys. The genus name derives from Latin, likely referring to a "little spike" or prickle, alluding to the fruit's compressed, spiny appearance, while the specific asiatica denotes its native Asian distribution.

Physical description

Centella asiatica is an that grows as a slender, creeping , forming dense mats through long, rooting stolons that can extend up to 1-2 meters in length. The stems are hairless, rounded, and typically 5-30 cm long, often rooting at the nodes and occasionally developing a prominent for anchorage. This growth habit allows the plant to spread rapidly across the ground surface. The leaves are alternate, simple, and borne on long petioles that measure 5-30 cm and sheath the stem at the base. Leaf blades are orbicular to reniform, 2-6 cm in diameter, with palmate venation, 7-9 rounded lobes, and crenate to serrate margins; the base is truncate to cordate, while the apex is rounded or acute, and surfaces are glabrous or sparsely strigose. Polymorphic variations in leaf shape occur, ranging from deeply lobed to nearly entire margins across different populations. Flowers are small, white to pinkish, and clustered in axillary umbels of 3-6, arising on peduncles 1.5-6 cm long from the leaf axils; each umbelule has linear bracts 1-2 mm long and pedicels 1-2 mm. The corolla consists of petals about 1 mm long, with triangular sepals 0.3-0.5 mm and styles ca. 1.5 mm. Fruits are schizocarps, flattened and ribbed with 3-5 prominent ribs, oblong to obcordate, 6-10 mm long and ca. 2 mm in diameter, containing vittae in the furrows and on the commissure. The life cycle is , with primary vegetative via rooting stolons that enable mat formation, supplemented by for longer-range spread. Centella asiatica belongs to the family.

Habitat and distribution

Native and introduced ranges

Centella asiatica is native to the tropical and subtropical regions of the , including , (such as , , , , , and parts of ), , and islands in the Western Pacific. Documented wild populations are widespread in these areas, reflecting its origin in wetland and marshy habitats of the tropics. The species has been introduced and naturalized in numerous other regions through human activities, particularly in the Americas (such as in the United States and ) and various Pacific islands beyond its native range. These introductions have led to established populations in subtropical and tropical zones beyond its native range. Owing to its adaptability and dispersal facilitated by and cultivation, Centella asiatica has achieved a distribution worldwide.

Ecological preferences

Centella asiatica thrives in damp, shady habitats such as marshes, ditches, wetlands, and edges, where it forms creeping mats along the ground; it tolerates partial but prefers shaded conditions to avoid excessive drying. The favors fertile, moist loamy soils that retain water without becoming waterlogged, with an optimal range of 5.5 to 7.5, encompassing slightly acidic to neutral conditions; it adapts to a variety of soil textures including sandy, loamy, and clay types as long as is adequate. In terms of , it is adapted to tropical and subtropical environments with average temperatures between 20°C and 30°C, showing sensitivity to frost and poor performance below 10°C. Ecologically, C. asiatica serves as an effective ground cover that stabilizes soil and prevents in humid areas, while also providing low-lying and nectar resources for small . However, its vigorous growth can lead to invasive behavior in wetlands, where dense stands may outcompete and displace native vegetation. The plant engages in symbiotic relationships with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which enhance root nutrient uptake—particularly —and promote overall growth and production. occurs mainly through self-fertilization, though small such as , bees, and other crawling arthropods facilitate occasional cross-pollination by visiting the inconspicuous flowers.

Phytochemistry

Triterpenoid saponins

Triterpenoid represent the primary bioactive constituents of Centella asiatica, comprising pentacyclic triterpenes derived from the ursane (asiaticoside and asiatic acid) and oleanane (madecassoside and madecassic acid) skeletons. These compounds are responsible for many of the plant's pharmacological properties. Asiaticoside and madecassoside are glycosylated forms, with asiaticoside serving as the of asiatic acid, featuring a trisaccharide chain attached at the C-28 position, while madecassoside is similarly glycosylated from madecassic acid. The major triterpenoid vary in concentration depending on accessions and cultivation methods, with asiaticoside reaching up to 8% of dry weight in elite lines, and madecassoside similarly accumulating to high levels (e.g., 2-8% dry weight combined with asiaticoside in optimized conditions). Asiatic acid and madecassic acid, the aglycone forms, are present at lower concentrations, typically 0.5-2% dry weight, following of the . These levels establish the compounds' prominence, with total triterpenoids often comprising 0.5-2% in whole- extracts. Biosynthesis of these triterpenoids in C. asiatica proceeds via the in plant cells, starting from to form , which dimerizes to and is then oxidized to 2,3-oxidosqualene. This is cyclized by oxidosqualene cyclases, such as α-amyrin synthase for the ursane skeleton and β-amyrin synthase for the oleanane skeleton, yielding α-amyrin and β-amyrin precursors, respectively. Subsequent oxidations and glycosylations produce asiaticoside and madecassoside. Recent studies have identified key enzymes, such as CYP716C11 and CYP714E19, involved in the steps of the pathway. This pathway is predominantly active in tissues, supporting higher accumulation there. Extraction of triterpenoid saponins typically employs solvent methods using or , often under or ultrasonic assistance, yielding 0.5-2% total triterpenoids from dried plant material. For instance, 70% extraction from leaves recovers asiaticoside at 1-6% efficiency relative to dry weight, while water-based methods favor polar glycosides like madecassoside. Quantification is achieved via (HPLC) with UV detection at 205 nm, using reverse-phase columns to separate and measure individual compounds with high precision (e.g., limits of detection around 0.1-1 μg/mL). Content variations occur across plant parts and growth conditions, with triterpenoids concentrated higher in leaves (e.g., 2-8% dry weight for asiaticoside + madecassoside) than in stems or (often <1%). Factors such as exposure, nutrients, and elicitor treatments in cultivation can enhance yields by up to 2-fold, influencing profiles for commercial extraction.

Other chemical constituents

In addition to the primary triterpenoid saponins, Centella asiatica contains a variety of secondary metabolites that contribute to its overall profile. These include , phenolic compounds, volatile oils, , and steroids, which are present in varying concentrations depending on environmental factors, extraction methods, and plant parts analyzed. Flavonoids such as , , and their glycosides (e.g., , astragalin, and ) are notable constituents, typically comprising 0.1-1% of the dry weight in leaves and aerial parts. These compounds are identified through chromatographic techniques and contribute to the plant's minor bioactive diversity. in C. asiatica encompass and coumarins, such as , detected in methanolic and ethanolic extracts of the whole plant. Chlorogenic acid levels can vary but are consistently reported in studies on phenolic profiling, while coumarins appear in metabolomic analyses as part of the broader fraction. Volatile oils, extracted from aerial parts, are present in trace amounts (often <1% of dry weight) and dominated by sesquiterpenes including β-caryophyllene and germacrene D. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry reveals β-caryophyllene as a major component (up to 23% of the oil), alongside germacrene D (around 5%), with compositions varying by habitat. The plant also harbors free amino acids such as alanine, alongside serine, aspartate, glutamate, and others, as well as steroids like β-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol, primarily in leaves. These are quantified in safety assessments and phytochemical screenings, supporting the plant's nutritional profile. Overall, the total phenolic content in C. asiatica extracts ranges from 20-50 mg equivalents per gram of dry weight, with capacity demonstrated via assay showing scavenging activities of 50-70% at typical concentrations. These non-triterpenoid components may exhibit synergistic effects with triterpenoids in extracts.

Traditional uses

Culinary applications

Centella asiatica, commonly known as gotu kola or pegaga, serves as a versatile leafy green in traditional cuisines across Southeast and , often consumed fresh to preserve its mild, slightly bitter flavor. In , the leaves are a staple in ulam, a raw or lightly blanched paired with , , and , highlighting its role in daily meals among Malay communities. Similarly, in Indian regional dishes, the fresh leaves feature in salads such as gotu kola sambol, where they are finely chopped and mixed with grated , lime juice, green chilies, and salt for a tangy . In , it is prepared as malluma, a tempered preparation involving shredded leaves stir-fried briefly with , onions, and spices, or enjoyed raw in sambol variations. The plant is also incorporated into beverages and cooked preparations for broader appeal. In , fresh leaves are blended into nam bai bua bok, a chilled sweetened with and diluted with , commonly sold by street vendors as a refreshing . Cooked uses include soups like the Malaysian masak lemak, where leaves simmer in turmeric-infused with anchovies and chilies, or simple stir-fries in Sri Lankan and Indian households to mellow the bitterness.%202011/(1)IFRJ-2011-013.pdf) Dried leaves are steeped to make herbal teas, a common practice in both regions for a subtle, earthy enjoyed hot or iced. Nutritionally, Centella asiatica leaves are low in calories, with approximately 6.7% carbohydrates, 0.2% fats, and 2.4% proteins per fresh weight, while providing significant amounts of vitamins B and C, as well as minerals including calcium, iron, , and magnesium. To enhance palatability, preparation often involves blanching the leaves for 1-2 minutes in boiling water or saltwater, which reduces their inherent bitterness without diminishing .

Medicinal uses in traditional systems

In Ayurvedic medicine, Centella asiatica, known as Brahmi or Mandukaparni, has been revered for its role in enhancing memory, alleviating anxiety, and supporting health. It is documented in ancient texts such as the (circa 600 BCE), where it is described as a rejuvenative herb for cognitive vitality and overall mental well-being. Traditional formulations like Saraswatarishta incorporate the herb as a key ingredient to promote intellect and calm the mind. In , the plant is referred to as Ji xue cao and employed for by clearing heat and relieving , as well as for promoting and reducing swelling. It is traditionally used to treat abscesses, sores, and conditions involving blood stagnation, drawing on its cooling and invigorating properties. Across , particularly in where it is called pegagan, Centella asiatica is utilized for promoting and treating skin sores, with emphasizing its role in enhancing vitality and healing external ailments. In African traditional systems, the herb has been applied to manage and associated skin lesions, often through topical applications to soothe and repair affected tissues. Historically, Centella asiatica is administered in forms such as infusions, poultices, and medicated oils, with traditional dosages ranging from 600 mg to 3 g of dried herb daily, depending on the preparation and condition treated. These uses are attributed to bioactive triterpenoid compounds that support tissue repair and mental clarity. The plant holds deep cultural significance in folklore across Asia and Africa, symbolizing vitality and longevity, often linked to tales of sages and healers using it to sustain life force.

Modern therapeutic applications

Skin health and wound healing

Centella asiatica has been extensively studied for its role in promoting skin health, particularly through its bioactive triterpenoids like asiaticoside and madecassoside, which support tissue repair and reduce inflammation in dermatological applications. Traditionally, poultices made from the plant have been applied to wounds and burns in various cultures to aid healing. The primary mechanisms underlying these effects involve enhanced proliferation and modulation of key signaling pathways. Asiaticoside stimulates activity, leading to increased type I synthesis essential for remodeling during repair. It also interacts with the TGF-β pathway to promote balanced deposition, preventing excessive while accelerating re-epithelialization. Additionally, Centella asiatica extracts exhibit properties by inhibiting signaling, which reduces pro-inflammatory production such as TNF-α and IL-6, thereby mitigating and supporting a conducive environment. In , clinical evidence from studies up to 2022 demonstrates that topical applications of Centella asiatica accelerate wound closure. For instance, treatments with asiaticoside-containing formulations have shown significantly faster epithelialization and wound contraction compared to controls, with one reporting reduced healing times by approximately 7 days in partial-thickness burns. dressings incorporating Centella asiatica extracts further enhance outcomes through improved formation. Oral supplementation with Centella asiatica extract, standardized to 30–60% triterpenes, is also recommended at dosages of 60–180 mg/day for supporting skin health and wound healing protocols. For anti-scarring, Centella asiatica reduces in hypertrophic s by regulating maturation and decreasing persistence. A 2022 systematic of 4 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) confirmed its in minimizing formation post-injury, with improvements in pliability and reduced hypertrophic tissue observed across studies up to that date. In cosmeceuticals, Centella asiatica is incorporated into creams and serums for managing eczema and , where it alleviates and restores skin barrier function. For sensitive skin, high concentrations of Centella asiatica (e.g., 72% in some formulas) combined with ceramides, cholesterol, and fatty acids reinforce epidermal barrier integrity, while incorporation with allantoin, hyaluronic acid, and calming complexes provides soothing effects. Clinical evidence supports its soothing effects on irritated skin in these conditions. Its triterpenoids also provide UV protection by scavenging free radicals, contributing to photoprotection in combined formulations and helping prevent .

Neurological and cognitive benefits

Centella asiatica has been traditionally employed in Ayurvedic medicine as a medhya , a tonic to support memory and cognitive vitality. Research indicates neuroprotective effects of Centella asiatica, particularly through its triterpenoid constituents like asiatic acid, which mitigate in models by enhancing antioxidant enzyme activity and reducing . and studies demonstrate that these triterpenoids attenuate amyloid-beta-induced , preserving neuronal viability and reducing tau pathology in aluminum chloride-exposed models. A 2025 review highlights evidence on amyloid-beta inhibition and neuroprotective effects. Clinical and preclinical data support the and properties of Centella asiatica, attributed to GABA modulation where extracts stimulate decarboxylase activity to enhance GABA synthesis. A involving 33 participants with reported significant symptom reduction (p<0.01) on the Hamilton Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale after 60 days of treatment with 500 mg twice daily, alongside improvements in stress and depression scores. Animal studies corroborate these findings, with doses of 400-800 mg/kg reversing anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in models. Centella asiatica supplementation enhances cognitive function, particularly , in elderly populations. In a study of 28 healthy elderly volunteers (aged 45-65 years), 750 mg daily for 2 months improved and , with sustained effects observed post-treatment. EEG assessments in related human and animal investigations reveal increased activity following 12 weeks of supplementation, indicative of relaxed and improved neural synchronization. Underlying mechanisms involve upregulation of (BDNF) and promotion of hippocampal . Ethanol extracts of Centella asiatica (100-300 mg/kg in models) elevate hippocampal BDNF and TrkB receptor expression, fostering dendritic arborization and neuronal survival. These effects extend to enhanced synaptic density and mitochondrial function in the hippocampus, as shown in aged models treated with 20 mg/kg daily for 3 months. A 2025 review synthesizes evidence on the neuroprotective effects of Centella asiatica in neural cells, noting triterpenoids' role in mitigating and .

Other applications and research

Agricultural and cultivation practices

Centella asiatica is primarily propagated vegetatively through stem cuttings or stolons, as seed germination can take 10-20 days and is less reliable for uniform stands. One-node stem cuttings with rooted nodes are commonly used, requiring approximately 100,000 plants per for optimal coverage. Planting occurs at spacings of 30-45 cm between rows and plants to allow for spreading growth. The plant thrives in tropical and subtropical climates with temperatures of 20-30°C and is highly shade-tolerant, performing well under 50% shade for enhanced growth. It prefers with good drainage and a of 6.0-7.0, maintaining consistent moisture through regular to mimic its natural habitats. Fertilization typically involves NPK at 100:50:50 kg/ha, applied in four split doses to support vigorous herbage production without excessive vegetative growth. Pests such as and root-knot nematodes can affect cultivation, managed through integrated practices including neem-based sprays and to minimize chemical inputs. Harvesting begins 3-4 months after planting, with subsequent cuts every 60 days, allowing for 2-3 crops per year in suitable conditions. Fresh herb yields range from 10-15 tons per hectare annually under good management, with organic systems in and achieving comparable outputs through and biofertilizers. Beyond medicinal production, C. asiatica serves as a for control in sloped terrains and as limited for , though its bitterness restricts intake.

Emerging pharmacological potentials

Recent research has highlighted the antidiabetic potential of Centella asiatica, primarily through its inhibition of alpha-glucosidase, an enzyme involved in , which helps lower postprandial blood glucose levels. In rodent models of induced by or , extracts of C. asiatica have demonstrated significant reductions in HbA1c levels, with studies reporting decreases of approximately 15-20% in treated groups compared to untreated diabetic controls after 4-6 weeks of administration. These effects are attributed to bioactive triterpenoids like asiaticoside and madecassoside, which enhance insulin sensitivity and reduce in pancreatic tissues. In the realm of oncology, C. asiatica extracts and isolated compounds such as asiatic acid have shown promising anticancer activity by inducing apoptosis in various cancer cell lines, particularly breast cancers. In vitro studies indicate that asiatic acid induces apoptosis in breast cancer cells, with an IC50 of approximately 43 μg/mL in doxorubicin-resistant MCF-7 cells, via caspase activation and mitochondrial dysfunction. This apoptotic induction is mediated through downregulation of anti-apoptotic proteins like Bcl-2 and upregulation of pro-apoptotic Bax, offering a potential adjunct to conventional chemotherapies. Beyond these, C. asiatica exhibits anti- properties by providing mucosal protection in gastric models, where extracts reduce lesion size through enhancement of production in studies. Similarly, its anti-osteoporotic effects involve increased in ovariectomized rat models, with asiatic acid promoting differentiation and suppressing activity via modulation of signaling, resulting in increased density compared to controls after 6 weeks. Additional emerging applications include effects in models, where C. asiatica extracts attenuate swelling and levels (e.g., TNF-α and IL-6) in collagen-induced rats, primarily through inhibition of pathways. To address challenges, nanostructured delivery systems like liposomes have been developed, encapsulating C. asiatica triterpenoids to enhance gastrointestinal absorption by 2-3-fold, as shown in pharmacokinetic studies using rat models, thereby improving therapeutic efficacy. Despite these preclinical advances, research gaps persist, with limited human clinical trials; 2025 reviews emphasize the need for Phase II studies to validate and in conditions like and cancer, highlighting the transition from promising and animal data to clinical application. A 2025 review highlights ongoing preclinical promise but stresses the need for advanced clinical trials to translate findings into human applications.

Safety and toxicology

Adverse effects

Centella asiatica is generally well-tolerated at recommended doses, with adverse effects reported infrequently in clinical and preclinical studies. Common side effects from oral intake include gastrointestinal disturbances such as , stomach upset, and . Topical application may cause or burning sensations in sensitive individuals, often linked to within the family. Hepatotoxicity is rare but documented, with case reports from the early 2000s describing acute liver injury characterized by jaundice and elevated alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels following prolonged high-dose extract use (20–60 days). These findings have been corroborated in later regional reviews of herbal-induced liver injuries. In animal studies, the oral median lethal dose (LD50) exceeds 5 g/kg in rodents, indicating low acute toxicity, and no genotoxic effects were observed in the Ames test using Salmonella typhimurium strains. For long-term human use beyond 3 months, monitoring of liver function tests is advised due to the potential for rare hepatic complications. The European Medicines Agency (EMA), as of 2022, does not support oral use for medicinal purposes due to concerns over hepatotoxicity and reproductive toxicity, while topical use is considered reasonably safe.

Contraindications and interactions

Centella asiatica is contraindicated during and due to its reputed properties, potential to modify the , and lack of sufficient safety data. Its use is not recommended in children under 18 years of age owing to insufficient evidence on safety and efficacy in pediatric populations. Patients with preexisting should avoid Centella asiatica, as it has been associated with rare cases of acute , potentially exacerbating hepatic conditions. Regarding drug interactions, Centella asiatica may enhance when used concomitantly with sedatives, owing to its modulation of activity in the brain. No other major interactions have been widely documented, though monitoring is advised. Centella asiatica is generally regarded as safe for use in foods and by regulatory bodies, but it lacks official (GRAS) status from the FDA for broad dietary applications; dietary supplements containing it remain unregulated and require caution regarding purity and dosing.

References

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