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Patulin
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| Names | |||
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| IUPAC name
4-hydroxy-4H-furo[3,2-c]pyran-2(6H)-one
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| Other names
2-Hydroxy-3,7-dioxabicyclo[4.3.0]nona-5,9-dien-8-one
Clairformin Claviform Expansine Clavacin Clavatin Expansin Gigantin Leucopin Patuline | |||
| Identifiers | |||
3D model (JSmol)
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| ChEBI | |||
| ChEMBL | |||
| ChemSpider | |||
| ECHA InfoCard | 100.005.215 | ||
| EC Number |
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| KEGG | |||
PubChem CID
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| UNII | |||
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
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| Properties | |||
| C7H6O4 | |||
| Molar mass | 154.12 g/mol | ||
| Appearance | Compact prisms | ||
| Density | 1.52 g/mL | ||
| Melting point | 110 °C (230 °F; 383 K) | ||
| Soluble | |||
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Patulin is an organic compound classified as a polyketide. It is named after the fungus from which it was isolated, Penicillium patulum. It is a white powder soluble in acidic water and in organic solvents. It is a lactone that is heat-stable, so it is not destroyed by pasteurization or thermal denaturation.[2] However, stability following fermentation is lessened.[3] It is a mycotoxin produced by a variety of molds, in particular, Aspergillus and Penicillium and Byssochlamys. Most commonly found in rotting apples, the amount of patulin in apple products is generally viewed as a measure of the quality of the apples used in production. In addition, patulin has been found in other foods such as grains, fruits, and vegetables. Its presence is highly regulated.
Biosynthesis, synthesis, and reactivity
[edit]Patulin is biosynthesized from 6-methylsalicylic acid via multiple chemical transformations.[4]
Isoepoxydon dehydrogenase (IDH) is an important enzyme in the multi-step biosynthesis of patulin. Its gene is present in other fungi that may potentially produce the toxin.[5] It is reactive with sulfur dioxide, so antioxidant and antimicrobial agents may be useful to destroy it.[6] Levels of nitrogen, manganese, and pH as well as abundance of necessary enzymes regulate the biosynthetic pathway of patulin.[5]
Uses
[edit]Patulin was originally used as an antibiotic against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, but after several toxicity reports, it is no longer used for that purpose.[7] Isolated by Nancy Atkinson in 1943, it was specifically trialed to be used against the common cold.[7] Patulin is used as a potassium-uptake inhibitor in laboratory applications.[2] Kashif Jilani and co-workers reported that patulin stimulates suicidal erythrocyte death under physiological concentrations.[8]
Sources of exposure
[edit]Frequently, patulin is found in apples and apple products such as juices, jams, and ciders. It has also been detected in other fruits including cherries, blueberries, plums, bananas, strawberries, and grapes.[6] Fungal growth leading to patulin production is most common on damaged fruits.[9] Patulin has also been detected in grains like barley, wheat, corn and their processed products as well as in shellfish.[6][10][full citation needed] Dietary intake of patulin from apple juice has been estimated at between 0.03 and 0.26 μg per kg body weight per day in various age groups and populations.[11] Content of patulin in apple juice is estimated to be less than 10–15 μg/L.[11] A number of studies have looked into comparisons of organic vs conventional harvest of apples and levels of patulin contamination.[12][13][14] For example, one study showed 0.9% of children drinking organic apple juice exceeded the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for patulin.[15][full citation needed] A recent article described detection of patulin in marine strains of Penicillium, indicating a potential risk in shellfish consumption.[10]
Toxicity
[edit]A subacute rodent NOAEL of 43 μg/kg body weight as well as genotoxicity studies were primarily the cause for setting limits for patulin exposure, although a range of other types of toxicity also exist.[3]
While not a particularly potent toxin, patulin is genotoxic. Some theorize that it may be a carcinogen, although animal studies have remained inconclusive.[16] Patulin has shown antimicrobial properties against some microorganisms.[1] Several countries have instituted patulin restrictions in apple products. The World Health Organization recommends a maximum concentration of 50 μg/L in apple juice.[17] In the European Union, the limit is also set at 50 micrograms per kilogram (μg/kg) in apple juice and cider, at 25 μg/kg in solid apple products, and at 10 μg/kg in products for infants and young children. These limits came into force on 1 November 2003.[18][full citation needed]
Acute
[edit]Patulin is toxic primarily through affinity to sulfhydryl groups (SH), which results in inhibition of enzymes. Oral LD50 in rodent models have ranged between 20 and 100 mg/kg.[3] In poultry, the oral LD50 range was reported between 50 and 170 mg/kg.[5] Other routes of exposure are more toxic, yet less likely to occur. Major acute toxicity findings include gastrointestinal problems, neurotoxicity (i.e. convulsions), pulmonary congestion, and edema.[3]
Subacute
[edit]Studies in rats showed decreased weight, and gastric, intestinal, and renal function changes, while repetitive doses lead to neurotoxicity. Reproductive toxicity in males was also reported.[5] A NOAEL in rodents was observed at 43 μg/kg body weight.[3]
Genotoxicity
[edit]WHO concluded that patulin is genotoxic based on variable genotoxicity data, however it is considered a group 3 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) since data was inconclusive.[3]
Reproduction studies
[edit]Patulin decreased sperm count and altered sperm morphology in the rat.[19] Also, it resulted in abortion of F1 litters in rats and mice after i.p. injection.[5] Embryotoxicity and teratogenicity were also reported in chick eggs.[5]
Immunotoxicity
[edit]Patulin was found to be immunotoxic in a number of animal and even human studies. Reduced cytokine secretion, oxidative burst in macrophages, increased splenic T lymphocytes, and increased neutrophil numbers are a few endpoints noticed.[5] However, dietary relevant exposure would not be likely to alter immune response.[6]
Human health
[edit]Although there are only very few reported cases and epidemiological data, the FDA has set an action limit of 50 ppb in cider due to its potential carcinogenicity and other reported adverse effects.[3] In humans, it was tested as an antiviral intranasally for use against the common cold with few significant adverse effects, yet also had negligible or no beneficial effect.[7]
Risk management and regulations
[edit]Patulin exposure can be successfully managed by following good agricultural practices such as removing mold, washing, and not using rotten or damaged apples for baking, canning, or juice production.[3][9]
US
The provisional tolerable daily intake (PTDI) for patulin was set at 0.43 μg/kg body weight by the FDA[3] based on a NOAEL of 0.3 mg/kg body weight per week.[3] Monte Carlo analysis was done on apple juice to compare exposure and the PTDI. Without controls or an action limit, the 90th percentile of consumers would not be above the PTDI. However, the concentration in children 1–2 years old would be three times as high as the PDTI, hence an action limit of 50 μg/kg.[3]
WHO
The World Health Organization recommends a maximum concentration of 50 μg/L in apple juice.[17]
EU
The European Union (EU) has set a maximum limit of 50 μg/kg on fruit juices and drinks, while solid apple products have a limit of 25 μg/kg. For certain foods intended for infants, an even lower limit of 10 μg/kg is observed.
To test for patulin contamination, a variety of methods and sample preparation methods have been employed, including thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and capillary electrophoresis.[20]
References
[edit]- ^ a b Merck Index, 11th Edition, 7002
- ^ a b Patulin sigmaaldrich.com
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Patulin in Apple Juice, Apple Juice Concentrates and Apple Juice Products". www.fda.gov. Archived from the original on 2013-08-15.
- ^ Puel, Olivier; Galtier, Pierre; Oswald, Isabelle (2010). "Biosynthesis and Toxicological Effects of Patulin". Toxins. 2 (4): 613–631. doi:10.3390/toxins2040613. PMC 3153204. PMID 22069602.
- ^ a b c d e f g Puel, Olivier; Galtier, Pierre; Oswald, Isabelle P. (5 April 2010). "Biosynthesis and Toxicological Effects of Patulin". Toxins. 2 (4): 613–631. doi:10.3390/toxins2040613. PMC 3153204. PMID 22069602.
- ^ a b c d Llewellyn, G.C; McCay, J.A; Brown, R.D; Musgrove, D.L; Butterworth, L.F; Munson, A.E; White, K.L (1998). "Immunological evaluation of the mycotoxin patulin in female b6C3F1 mice". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 36 (12): 1107–1115. doi:10.1016/s0278-6915(98)00084-2. PMID 9862653.
- ^ a b c Medical Research Council. Clinical trial of patulin in the common cold. Lancet1944; ii: 373-5.
- ^ Lupescu, A; Jilani, K; Zbidah, M; Lang, F (2013). "Patulin-induced suicidal erythrocyte death". Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry. 32 (2): 291–9. doi:10.1159/000354437. PMID 23942252.
- ^ a b "Patulin". Archived from the original on 2013-10-18. Retrieved 2013-11-25.
- ^ a b Pouchous et al. Shellfish
- ^ a b Wouters, FA, and Speijers, GJA. JECFA Monograph on Patulin. World Health Organization Food Additives Series 35 (http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v26je10.htm)
- ^ Pique, E., et al. Occurrence of patulin in organic and conventional apple juice. Risk Assessment. Recent Advances in Pharmaceutical Sciences, III, 2013: 131–144.
- ^ Piemontese, L.; Solfrizzo, M.; Visconti, A. (2005-05-01). "Occurrence of patulin in conventional and organic fruit products in Italy and subsequent exposure assessment". Food Additives and Contaminants. 22 (5): 437–442. doi:10.1080/02652030500073550. ISSN 0265-203X. PMID 16019815. S2CID 31155096.
- ^ Piqué, E; Vargas-Murga, L; Gómez-Catalán, J; Lapuente, Jd; Llobet, JM (October 2013). "Occurrence of patulin in organic and conventional apple-based food marketed in Catalonia and exposure assessment". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 60: 199–204. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2013.07.052. PMID 23900007.
- ^ Beark et al 2007
- ^ "Patulin: a Mycotoxin in Apples". Perishables Handling Quarterly (91): 5. August 1997
- ^ a b "Foodborne hazards (World Health Organization". Retrieved 2007-01-22.
- ^ Patulin information leaf from Fermentek
- ^ Selmanoglu, G (2006). "Evaluation of the reproductive toxicity of patulin in growing male rats". Food Chem. Toxicol. 44 (12): 2019–2024. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2006.06.022. PMID 16905234.
- ^ Baert, Katleen; De Meulenaer, Bruno; Verdonck, Frederik; Huybrechts, Inge; De Henauw, Stefaan; Vanrolleghem, Peter A.; Debevere, Johan; Devlieghere, Frank (2007). "Variability and uncertainty assessment of patulin exposure for preschool children in Flanders". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 45 (9): 1745–1751. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2007.03.008. PMID 17459555.
External links
[edit]- Patulin Archived 2017-12-19 at the Wayback Machine, Food Safety Watch
Patulin
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Chemical Properties
Molecular Structure
Patulin possesses the molecular formula C₇H₆O₄ and a molecular weight of 154.12 g/mol.[9] This mycotoxin features a bicyclic γ-lactone structure, consisting of a five-membered furan ring fused to a six-membered 2H-pyran ring. The system includes a lactone carbonyl at position 2, a conjugated double bond between carbons 3 and the exocyclic methylene, and an additional double bond within the pyran ring, with a hydroxy group attached at carbon 4. This arrangement, systematically named 4-hydroxy-4H-furo[3,2-c]pyran-2(6H)-one, contributes to its reactivity as an α,β-unsaturated lactone.[9][10] Patulin lacks chiral centers and is achiral, exhibiting no significant stereoisomers under physiological conditions. It does not undergo notable tautomerization, maintaining a stable unsaturated configuration.[9] The structure of patulin was elucidated in the late 1940s, building on its initial isolation as an antibiotic by Ernst Chain and colleagues in 1942; the definitive proposal came from R. B. Woodward and G. Singh in 1949 through degradative analysis and partial synthesis.[11]Physical and Chemical Reactivity
Patulin appears as a white crystalline solid. It has a melting point of 108–111 °C. The compound exhibits high solubility in water and is also readily soluble in organic solvents such as ethyl acetate, acetone, dichloromethane, and ethanol.[12][13][14] Patulin displays characteristic UV absorption with a maximum at 276 nm, which facilitates its detection in analytical methods. Chemically, it is reactive due to its α,β-unsaturated lactone structure, enabling nucleophilic additions. In alkaline conditions, patulin undergoes hydrolysis of the lactone ring, primarily forming desoxypatulinic acid as a degradation product. This instability contrasts with its relative stability in acidic environments (pH 3.5–5.5), where it resists hydrolysis even at elevated temperatures up to 90 °C. Additionally, patulin readily reacts with thiol-containing compounds, such as cysteine and glutathione, to form stable covalent adducts via Michael addition at the unsaturated bond; for example, equimolar patulin and cysteine at pH 6–7 yield patulin-cysteine adducts.[15][16][17][18][19] Degradation pathways of patulin are influenced by environmental factors. Under heat, it remains largely intact in acidic media at temperatures below 90 °C but degrades progressively above 100 °C, with about 50% reduction observed at 100 °C for 40–60 minutes at pH 6. Exposure to UV light, particularly in the 200–280 nm range near its absorption maximum, induces photodegradation, effectively reducing levels in aqueous solutions like apple juice. pH shifts exacerbate reactivity: alkaline conditions accelerate hydrolysis, while acidic conditions preserve integrity but allow thermal breakdown at high temperatures. A representative degradation reaction under alkaline hydrolysis involves lactone ring opening: These reactivity traits pose analytical challenges, as patulin standards require frozen storage (−20 °C) to maintain stability for at least two years, and sample preparation must avoid alkaline media or excess thiols to prevent adduct formation that could underestimate concentrations during HPLC-UV detection.[20][21][15][12][22]Production and Occurrence
Biosynthesis Pathway
Patulin biosynthesis in fungi, such as Penicillium expansum, is a polyketide-derived pathway initiated by a type I polyketide synthase (PKS) enzyme that assembles the core structure from simple precursors. The process begins with the condensation of one molecule of acetyl-CoA and three molecules of malonyl-CoA to form 6-methylsalicylic acid (6-MSA), catalyzed by the multifunctional enzyme 6-methylsalicylic acid synthase (6-MSAS), encoded by the patK gene. This step involves ketosynthase, acyltransferase, and dehydratase activities within the PKS domain, establishing the aromatic backbone essential for subsequent modifications.[23] Following 6-MSA formation, the pathway proceeds through approximately 10 enzymatic steps, involving decarboxylation, hydroxylation, oxidation, epoxidation, and cyclization to yield patulin. Decarboxylation of 6-MSA to m-cresol is mediated by 6-MSA decarboxylase, encoded by patG. Sequential cytochrome P450 monooxygenations then introduce hydroxyl groups: patH (CYP619C3) converts m-cresol to m-hydroxybenzyl alcohol, and patI (CYP619C2) further hydroxylates it to gentisyl alcohol. Oxidation of gentisyl alcohol to gentisaldehyde is likely catalyzed by an alcohol dehydrogenase (patD), followed by dehydrogenation to gentisic acid or direct epoxidation to isoepoxydon via unidentified enzymes. Isoepoxydon is then reduced to phyllostine by isoepoxydon dehydrogenase (patN), which undergoes further rearrangements through neopatulin and ascladiol intermediates, culminating in the final lactone ring closure to patulin by a GMC oxidoreductase (patE). These steps highlight oxidative transformations as key mechanistic features, with intermediates often exhibiting transient toxicity.[23][24] The biosynthetic genes are organized in a cluster spanning about 40-44 kb, comprising 15 genes (patA to patO) in P. expansum and related species like Aspergillus clavatus. Core biosynthetic genes include patK, patG, patH, patI, patD, patN, and patE, while accessory genes encode transporters (patA, patC, patM) for export and resistance, and unknowns (patF, patJ, patO). The cluster-specific transcription factor PatL, a Zn(II)₂Cys₆ binuclear protein encoded by patL, positively regulates expression of all cluster genes, with peak activity under acidic conditions (pH 5.0) and nitrogen limitation. Global regulators like LaeA and velvet complex proteins (VeA, VelB) also influence the pathway, integrating it with fungal development and stress responses.[23][25][26] Pathway efficiency varies across producing fungi, with P. expansum exhibiting high flux due to complete clusters, whereas species like Byssochlamys fulva lack key genes such as patK and produce no patulin. Flux control points occur at the initial PKS step (patK) and cytochrome P450 hydroxylations (patH/I), where enzyme localization in the endoplasmic reticulum limits intermediate accumulation and directs carbon flow. Subcellular compartmentalization, including cytosolic PKS activity and vacuolar storage, further modulates efficiency in P. expansum.[23][25][26]Producing Microorganisms
Patulin is primarily produced by several species of fungi within the genera Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Byssochlamys, which play key roles as postharvest pathogens and saprophytes in decaying plant material.[27] Among these, Penicillium expansum, commonly known as blue mold, is the most significant producer, causing widespread decay in pomaceous fruits such as apples and pears, where it colonizes wounded or senescent tissues and facilitates nutrient recycling in natural ecosystems.[28] Penicillium griseofulvum also contributes substantially, acting as a postharvest pathogen on stored fruits and grains, particularly in temperate environments, and aiding in the breakdown of organic matter in soil and silage.[29] Aspergillus clavatus is another key producer, often found in stored grains, malting residues, and animal feeds, where it promotes fungal competition and decomposition under aerobic conditions.[30] Byssochlamys nivea, a heat-resistant ascomycete, thrives in processed fruit products and soil, contributing to spoilage in canned or juiced fruits and enhancing microbial diversity in humid, organic-rich habitats.[31] Secondary producers include Paecilomyces variotii, a thermotolerant fungus isolated from air, soil, and food processing environments, where certain strains exhibit patulin production potential and support ecosystem resilience in variable temperature settings.[32] Talaromyces patulinus, formerly associated with Penicillium taxonomy, occurs in soil and decaying vegetation, playing a minor role in organic matter decomposition and occasionally contributing to patulin in natural substrates.[27] Patulin production by these microorganisms is favored under specific environmental conditions that mimic their ecological niches, such as temperatures of 20–25°C, which optimize fungal growth and metabolite synthesis in temperate climates.[33] Acidic pH levels between 3 and 5 enhance production, aligning with the low-pH environments of ripening or decaying fruits where these fungi predominate.[28] Aerobic conditions with adequate oxygen availability are essential, as these producers are typically filamentous molds that require molecular oxygen for polyketide synthesis pathways.[34] Substrate availability, particularly decaying fruit rich in simple sugars like glucose, further promotes biosynthesis, reflecting their saprophytic adaptations to nutrient-limited postharvest settings.[27] At the genomic level, patulin production is governed by conserved biosynthetic gene clusters, typically spanning about 40 kb and comprising 15 genes, including polyketide synthases and dehydrogenases, which are present in producing strains but often disrupted or absent in non-producers.[27] Strain variations in production capacity arise from genetic differences, such as intact versus mutated clusters; for instance, high-producing strains of P. expansum exhibit complete clusters, while low or non-producing variants show deletions or pseudogenes, influencing their ecological competitiveness.[35] These variations underscore adaptive evolution among strains, with high producers dominating in fruit decay niches.[25]Sources of Exposure
Environmental and Food Sources
Patulin occurs naturally in various environmental settings, primarily through the growth of toxin-producing fungi on organic matter. It is commonly found in decaying fruits such as apples, pears, and grapes, where molds like Penicillium expansum thrive on damaged or rotting tissue.[36][1] Beyond fruits, patulin has been detected in grains including wheat, barley, and corn, as well as in silage used for animal feed, where fungal contamination develops under moist conditions during storage.[37][38] In food systems, patulin contamination is most prevalent in apple-derived products, reflecting the toxin's association with post-harvest fruit decay. Moldy apples can contain patulin concentrations ranging from 50 to 5000 µg/kg, with levels varying based on the extent of fungal infection.[39] Processed items like apple juice, cider, and puree often show lower but detectable amounts, typically with means around 28–50 µg/kg and maxima up to 396 µg/kg in surveyed samples, though regulatory limits cap it at 50 µg/kg in many jurisdictions.[28] Contamination extends to other foods, including certain grain-based products, cheese, vegetables, or berries, but apple commodities remain the primary concern due to high incidence rates.[2][40][41] Globally, patulin incidence is elevated in regions with humid, temperate climates conducive to fungal growth, such as parts of Europe and Asia, where post-harvest storage challenges amplify contamination during wet seasons.[33] Seasonal peaks occur in autumn, coinciding with fruit harvests and increased mold proliferation under cooler, moist conditions.[42] Several factors influence patulin levels in these sources, including mold infection rates driven by Penicillium expansum and environmental conditions during growth and storage. Bruising or wounding of fruits facilitates fungal entry and toxin production, while suboptimal storage—such as high humidity, temperatures between 0–25°C, and prolonged duration—exacerbates accumulation.[39][33] Effective management, like prompt sorting of decayed produce, can reduce levels by up to 99% in affected batches.[36]Human Exposure Routes
The primary route of human exposure to patulin is through oral ingestion of contaminated foods, particularly apple-based products such as juice, cider, and purees, which account for the vast majority of overall exposure.[43] In regions with higher contamination levels, estimated daily intakes range from 0.1 to 1 µg/kg body weight, primarily driven by consumption of moldy or decayed fruits processed into these products.[44] Secondary exposure routes include inhalation, particularly in occupational settings such as agriculture where workers handle moldy produce during harvesting or processing, leading to potential aerosolization of fungal spores and mycotoxins.[45] Dermal contact is considered rare and contributes minimally to overall exposure, though it may occur through direct handling of contaminated materials without protective measures.[46] Biomarker studies have identified patulin and its metabolites in human urine as reliable indicators of recent exposure, allowing for non-invasive assessment of internal doses through liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry methods.[47] Certain populations face elevated exposure risks; children, for instance, experience higher relative intakes—often several times that of adults—due to greater consumption of apple juice per body weight, while farmers and agricultural workers are vulnerable to occupational inhalation during moldy fruit handling.[48][45]Applications and Uses
Historical Medicinal Uses
Patulin was first identified as a potential antibiotic in the early 1940s during efforts to discover new antimicrobial agents following the success of penicillin. In 1942, Ernst Chain, Howard Florey, and Margaret Jennings isolated an antibacterial substance named claviformin from the culture filtrate of Penicillium claviforme, demonstrating its activity against various bacteria, including Gram-positive species like Staphylococcus aureus and some Gram-negative organisms.[49] This compound was later confirmed to be identical to patulin, which had been independently isolated in 1943 by J.H. Birkinshaw and colleagues from the culture filtrate of Penicillium patulum (now known as Penicillium griseofulvum).[23] Initial laboratory tests highlighted patulin's broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties, prompting exploration of its therapeutic potential against bacterial infections.[7] Encouraged by these findings, patulin was rapidly advanced to clinical trials in the mid-1940s, particularly for respiratory infections. Between 1943 and 1944, the British Medical Research Council (MRC) conducted the first double-blind, multicentre randomized controlled trial, administering patulin as an inhalant solution to over 1,300 volunteers with common cold symptoms, targeting inflammation in the nose, throat, and larynx.[50] The trial, involving multiple sites across the UK, found no significant difference in recovery rates between the patulin-treated group and the placebo control, indicating a lack of efficacy against viral respiratory infections like the common cold.[51] This study marked a pioneering effort in clinical trial methodology, employing alternation for allocation to prevent bias and blinding to ensure objectivity.[52] Early applications also included topical uses for conditions such as rhinitis and superficial fungal infections like ringworm, leveraging patulin's antifungal activity observed in vitro. However, by the 1950s, mounting evidence of its toxicity to mammalian cells and tissues led to the abandonment of patulin as a medicinal agent, shifting focus away from its clinical development.[53]Industrial and Research Applications
Patulin has been the subject of several total synthesis efforts, enabling its production for laboratory use independent of fungal biosynthesis. The first total synthesis was reported in 1948 by Földi, Fodor, and Demjén.[54] Later routes include a 1989 synthesis by Riguera et al. from L-arabinose achieving 23% overall yield, and a 1995 optimization by Tada et al. starting from furan derivatives via intramolecular Diels-Alder reactions followed by oxidative rearrangements, with an overall yield of 41.3% over six steps.[55][56] These synthetic methods provide pure patulin for analytical and experimental purposes without reliance on microbial sources. In industrial applications, patulin serves as a certified reference standard in mycotoxin detection kits, facilitating precise calibration for high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) methods to monitor contamination in fruit products. Commercial suppliers like Sigma-Aldrich and Romer Labs offer high-purity patulin standards (>98% purity) accompanied by certificates of analysis, ensuring traceability and accuracy in regulatory compliance testing as per guidelines from bodies like the FDA and EFSA. This role underscores its importance in quality control for the food industry, where it enables the quantification of trace levels (e.g., below 50 μg/kg limits) in apple juice and related commodities.[57][58] As a research tool, patulin is widely used to probe fungal metabolism and interspecies interactions, particularly in co-culture studies where non-producing molds like Monilinia fructigena biotransform it via unknown enzymatic pathways, revealing mechanisms of antagonism in postharvest environments. In cellular models, it induces oxidative stress in mammalian cell lines such as HEK293 and HL-60, elevating reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, disrupting mitochondrial function, and activating pathways like p53-mediated apoptosis, providing insights into mycotoxin cytotoxicity without requiring live fungal systems. Its historical exploration as an antibiotic in the mid-20th century has informed these modern lab applications. Recent studies (as of 2024) have utilized patulin's reactivity to develop haptens for triggering immune responses and improving immunoassay detection.[59] Despite its potent antifungal activity against other molds—demonstrated by inhibition of postharvest pathogens like Botrytis cinerea and non-Penicillium species—patulin's application in biocontrol remains limited due to its broad toxicity to eukaryotes, including humans and beneficial microbes. Rare studies have tested it in vitro for suppressing mold growth on fruits, but practical deployment is hindered by regulatory concerns over residue accumulation.Toxicology
Acute and Subacute Effects
Patulin exhibits acute toxicity primarily through oral exposure in animal models, with reported LD50 values ranging from 17 to 48 mg/kg body weight in mice and 28 to 41 mg/kg body weight in rats.[60] Common symptoms of acute intoxication include agitation, convulsions, dyspnea, pulmonary congestion and edema, as well as gastrointestinal effects such as ulcerations, hyperemia, distension, and hemorrhage.[60] These manifestations arise rapidly following high-dose administration, leading to systemic distress and potential lethality within hours to days. In subacute exposure scenarios, repeated low doses over periods such as 14 days induce notable physiological changes in rodents, including initial body weight loss followed by partial recovery, alongside increased mortality and persistent gastrointestinal lesions like epithelial degeneration, ulceration, and hemorrhage.[60] Studies in rats administered patulin via drinking water for up to four weeks have demonstrated renal effects, such as reduced creatinine clearance at higher doses, indicating impaired kidney function without overt morphological damage.[61] Liver involvement is less pronounced in these short-term models, though overall organ stress contributes to the observed weight reduction and systemic imbalance. At the cellular level, patulin's toxicity involves the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which induce oxidative stress and contribute to cell damage across tissues.[3] Additionally, as an electrophilic compound, patulin covalently binds to protein thiol groups, disrupting enzyme function and exacerbating cellular dysfunction.[62] Organ-specific responses highlight patulin's nephrotoxic potential, characterized by damage to renal tubular structures, including degeneration and impaired function in animal models.[63] Neurotoxic effects manifest as tremors, ataxia, and convulsions, linked to interference with neural signaling pathways.[60] These acute and subacute impacts underscore patulin's role in short-term physiological disruption, with mechanisms overlapping genotoxic pathways in broader toxicity profiles.[3]Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity
Patulin has demonstrated genotoxic potential in various in vitro and in vivo assays, primarily through mechanisms involving DNA damage rather than direct point mutations. In bacterial mutagenicity tests, results from the Ames assay are mixed; patulin generally does not induce revertants in Salmonella typhimurium strains without metabolic activation, but some studies report positive responses in the presence of S9 mix, suggesting bioactivation enhances its mutagenic activity.[23] The comet assay, which detects DNA strand breaks, has shown positive results in multiple organs of mice following acute oral exposure, with dose-dependent increases in tail moment and olive tail moment indicating significant DNA fragmentation in brain, kidney, liver, and urinary bladder tissues.[64] Mechanistically, patulin's genotoxicity arises from its electrophilic α,β-unsaturated γ-lactone structure, which enables covalent binding to nucleophilic sites in DNA bases such as adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine, potentially forming adducts that disrupt DNA integrity. This reactivity may involve the formation of reactive intermediates akin to epoxides, acting as ultimate mutagens by cross-linking DNA strands or inhibiting DNA repair processes. Additionally, patulin induces chromosomal aberrations and clastogenic effects, including micronuclei formation and bridge-like structures in mammalian cell lines like V79 Chinese hamster lung fibroblasts, contributing to structural DNA damage rather than base-pair substitutions.[65][66] These effects are partially mediated by oxidative stress, with reactive oxygen species (ROS) briefly implicated in early DNA lesion formation.[67] Regarding carcinogenicity, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies patulin as Group 3, not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans, based on limited evidence from animal studies conducted in 1986. Rodent bioassays have yielded equivocal results; oral administration to rats and mice at doses up to 2.5 mg/kg body weight per day for up to 104 weeks did not produce consistent systemic tumors, though subcutaneous injection led to local sarcomas at the site, suggesting irritant rather than genotoxic carcinogenesis. No hepatic tumors were convincingly linked to oral exposure, with histopathological examinations showing primarily cytotoxic effects like necrosis without neoplastic progression.[68][23] Recent studies from the 2020s reaffirm patulin's clastogenic properties in cellular models but highlight its low systemic carcinogenic risk due to rapid metabolism in vivo. Patulin is quickly conjugated with glutathione and reduced to the non-genotoxic and low-toxicity metabolite ascladiol via reductases, limiting its persistence and bioavailability after gastrointestinal absorption, which explains the absence of tumors in long-term oral rodent studies despite in vitro genotoxicity.[65][69] This metabolic detoxification underscores patulin's primary hazard as a local irritant and genotoxin rather than a potent systemic carcinogen.Reproductive and Immunotoxic Effects
Patulin exhibits reproductive toxicity in animal models, particularly affecting fetal development and fertility. In a multi-generation study with Wistar rats administered patulin orally at doses up to 1.5 mg/kg body weight per day, no significant effects on reproduction or fetal development were observed, though maternal toxicity including deaths occurred at the highest dose.[70] Reduced fertility has been reported in female mice exposed to patulin, with histopathological evidence of ovarian damage including follicular atresia and disrupted oogenesis, leading to decreased litter sizes.[71] Patulin disrupts estrogen signaling by modulating nuclear receptor activity, increasing estradiol production in human adrenocortical carcinoma cells and interfering with steroidogenesis, which contributes to endocrine imbalance and impaired reproductive function.[72] Regarding immunotoxicity, patulin suppresses T-cell proliferation in vitro, as demonstrated in EL-4 thymoma cells where concentrations of 500 ng/mL or higher significantly inhibited cell growth and IL-2 production following stimulation.[73] It also inhibits cytokine secretion, notably reducing IL-2 levels in activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells and T cells by depleting intracellular glutathione, thereby skewing Th1/Th2 balance toward immunosuppression.[74] In subchronic studies with growing male rats dosed orally at 0.1 mg/kg body weight daily for 4 weeks, thymic atrophy was evident, characterized by cortical dilation, fibrosis, hemorrhage, and interstitial enlargement, indicating structural damage to the thymus.[75] The underlying mechanisms involve induction of apoptosis in immune cells, such as macrophages, through reactive oxygen species-mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to caspase activation and cell death.[76] Patulin further interferes with the NF-κB pathway by suppressing its activation in innate immune cells like RAW264.7 macrophages, which diminishes proinflammatory cytokine production and contributes to overall immunosuppressive effects.[77] In a combined reproductive toxicity and long-term study in rats, the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) for reproductive endpoints was established at 0.1 mg/kg body weight per day, based on the absence of effects on fertility parameters at this dose.[70]Human Health Impacts
Patulin's direct impacts on human health remain poorly characterized due to the scarcity of epidemiological data and confirmed cases of intoxication, with no documented outbreaks attributed solely to this mycotoxin. Reported symptoms from suspected high-level exposures include nausea, vomiting, and gastrointestinal disturbances, as noted by the World Health Organization in its overview of mycotoxin effects.[1] These manifestations align with acute toxicity profiles observed in contaminated food consumption scenarios. High-dose exposure has been linked to more severe gastrointestinal effects, such as intestinal bleeding, ulcers, and duodenal lesions, potentially contributing to bleeding disorders in vulnerable individuals like children consuming moldy or decayed apples.[78] A 2019 review highlights these symptoms as consistent across reported human intoxication incidents, though causation is complicated by multi-mycotoxin co-occurrence in affected foods.[78] Biomonitoring efforts in the 2020s have revealed detectable patulin levels in human biological fluids, indicating ongoing low-level exposure in select populations; for instance, a 2020 pilot study using LC-MS/MS detected patulin in 25% of plasma samples from colorectal cancer patients, though it was absent in corresponding urine samples.[79] Such findings underscore gaps in understanding chronic exposure risks, with correlations to mycotoxic nephropathy in regions like the Balkans suggested in multi-mycotoxin contexts but lacking patulin-specific confirmation.[80] Infants represent a particularly susceptible group owing to their reliance on apple-based formulas and baby foods, where patulin contamination occurs frequently; one survey identified it in 63% of analyzed baby food products from China.[5] Risk assessments indicate margins of exposure below 10,000 for high-consumption scenarios among infants, signaling potential health concerns and the need for stringent controls.[81]Detection and Analysis
Analytical Methods
The standard analytical method for detecting and quantifying patulin in food samples, particularly apple-based products, involves high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with ultraviolet (UV) detection following liquid-liquid extraction. Typically, patulin is extracted from the sample using ethyl acetate, with subsequent cleanup steps such as partitioning with sodium carbonate to remove interfering compounds like 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). This approach, outlined in the international standard ISO 8128-1, achieves limits of detection (LOD) in the range of 1-5 µg/kg, enabling compliance monitoring with regulatory thresholds. Detection is typically performed using UV at 276 nm, which is straightforward but susceptible to matrix interferences. Sample preparation is critical to minimize matrix effects and ensure accurate quantification, especially in complex fruit matrices. For fruit juices and pulps, the QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe) method is widely employed, involving acetonitrile extraction, salting-out with magnesium sulfate and sodium chloride, and dispersive solid-phase extraction cleanup to remove pigments and lipids. Immunoaffinity columns provide highly selective cleanup by binding patulin via antibodies, significantly reducing matrix suppression in subsequent chromatographic analysis and improving recovery rates to over 95% in apple juices. Advanced confirmatory methods utilize liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with electrospray ionization (ESI) or atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) in negative mode, often incorporating stable isotope dilution (e.g., using ¹³C-labeled patulin) to correct for extraction inefficiencies and matrix effects, achieving LODs below 1 µg/kg. This technique allows simultaneous analysis of patulin alongside other mycotoxins and provides structural confirmation via multiple reaction monitoring. For rapid screening, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits offer a cost-effective alternative, with reported LODs as low as 0.03 µg/L, though they require LC-MS/MS verification due to potential cross-reactivity. Method validation follows ISO 8128 guidelines, adopted as the European reference method, ensuring linearity (R² > 0.99), precision (RSD < 10%), and accuracy (recovery 90-110%) across spiked levels from 10-1000 µg/kg. Recent advancements in ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC)-MS/MS have further improved sensitivity, with 2024 studies demonstrating LODs below 1 µg/L through optimized APCI interfaces and robotic automation, reducing analysis time to under 10 minutes while maintaining robustness for high-throughput monitoring.Occurrence Monitoring
Global monitoring of patulin occurrence is coordinated through organizations like the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO), primarily via the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). JECFA evaluations based on surveys from multiple countries indicate that mean patulin levels in apple juice and beverages are typically less than 10–15 µg/L, though occasional high contamination occurs in products from moldy apples.[60] These assessments emphasize the need for ongoing surveillance, as patulin is predominantly found in apple-derived products worldwide, with incidence rates varying by region and production practices.[28] In the European Union, the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) tracks patulin notifications in imported and domestic products, alerting member states to risks. Between 2020 and 2022, RASFF recorded 8 notifications related to patulin exceeding limits, with 6 involving apple juice and the remainder in apple sauce and mixed juices.[82] Earlier EU-wide surveys, such as those compiled by the European Commission, analyzed over 4,600 apple juice samples and found 57% positive for patulin, with mean levels around 15 µg/kg, though exceedances of the 50 µg/kg limit were infrequent due to regulatory enforcement.[83] The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) conducts annual monitoring under its Mycotoxins in Domestic and Imported Human Foods program, focusing on apple juice with an action level of 50 µg/kg. Surveys from 2015–2016 showed that 95% of tested samples complied with this level, indicating low non-compliance rates of less than 5%, attributed to industry adoption of hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP).[5] A regional study in Michigan (2008–2009) detected patulin in 23% of retail apple juice and cider samples, with 11% exceeding limits, highlighting variability but overall improvement over time.[84] Trends in patulin levels show a general decline in regulated regions due to improved sorting technologies and HACCP implementation, which remove moldy apples early in processing. For instance, UK surveys post-2003 regulations demonstrated reduced exceedances in clear and cloudy juices, with most samples now compliant.[85] However, emerging data indicate higher patulin in organic apple products compared to conventional ones, potentially due to limited use of fungicides.[86] Monitoring faces challenges, including underreporting in developing countries where surveillance infrastructure is limited, leading to gaps in global data.[87] Climate change exacerbates risks by promoting warmer, humid conditions that favor Penicillium expansum growth and patulin production on apples.[88] Analytical methods, such as liquid chromatography, support these programs by enabling accurate detection in surveillance samples.[28] As of 2025, monitoring efforts continue. The FDA updated its mycotoxins compliance program in 2024 to enhance patulin surveillance in domestic and imported human foods.[89] In April 2025, Martinelli's Company voluntarily recalled over 170,000 bottles of apple juice sold in 28 states due to potential elevated levels of patulin.[90] Additionally, RASFF issued notifications for patulin exceedances, including in apple juice from Serbia in February 2025.[91]Risk Assessment and Management
Regulatory Standards
The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) established a provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) for patulin of 0.4 µg/kg body weight based on a no-observed-effect level from long-term studies in rats, applying a safety factor of 100. This value serves as the toxicological basis for deriving regulatory limits worldwide. The Codex Alimentarius Commission recommends a maximum level of 50 µg/kg for patulin in apple juice and apple juice ingredients used in other beverages intended for direct consumption, as outlined in the Code of Practice for the Prevention and Reduction of Patulin Contamination in Apple Juice and Apple Juice Ingredients in Other Beverages (CXP 051-2003).[92] This recommendation, adopted in 2003, aims to minimize dietary exposure from primary sources like apple-based products and has been referenced in national standards globally. In the European Union, maximum levels for patulin are codified in Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915, which repealed and recast the earlier Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 effective May 2023, maintaining the prior thresholds to protect vulnerable populations.[93] These include 10 µg/kg in fruit juices, fruit nectars, and similar products intended for infants and young children; 50 µg/kg in fruit juices, concentrated fruit juices, fruit nectars, and cider derived from apples or containing apple juice; and 25 µg/kg in solid apple products such as compotes and purees.[93] The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has set an action level of 50 parts per billion (ppb), equivalent to 50 µg/kg, for patulin in single-strength apple juice, reconstituted apple juice, and the apple juice component of multi-ingredient foods, as detailed in Compliance Policy Guide Sec. 510.150 issued in November 2005.[94] Products exceeding this level are considered adulterated under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. For imports, the FDA enforces detention through Import Alert 20-06 if patulin levels surpass the action level, requiring evidence of safety for release.[95] In China, the National Food Safety Standard GB 2761-2017 specifies a maximum level of 50 µg/kg for patulin in apple juice, apple cider, and other apple-based products, aligning with international benchmarks to control mycotoxin exposure in fruits and derivatives.[96]| Jurisdiction | Product Category | Maximum Level (µg/kg) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Codex Alimentarius | Apple juice and ingredients | 50 | CXP 051-2003 (2003)[92] |
| European Union | Infant/young children fruit juices & nectars | 10 | Reg. (EU) 2023/915 (2023)[93] |
| European Union | Adult fruit juices, nectars, cider | 50 | Reg. (EU) 2023/915 (2023)[93] |
| European Union | Solid apple products (e.g., compotes) | 25 | Reg. (EU) 2023/915 (2023)[93] |
| United States (FDA) | Apple juice & components | 50 ppb | CPG Sec. 510.150 (2005)[94] |
| China | Apple-based products | 50 | GB 2761-2017 (2017)[96] |