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Combretum imberbe
Combretum imberbe
Combretum imberbe
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Leadwood tree
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Myrtales
Family: Combretaceae
Genus: Combretum
Species:
C. imberbe
Binomial name
Combretum imberbe
Synonyms
  • Combretum primigenum Marloth ex Engl.[2]

Combretum imberbe (also known as leadwood or mhoba-hoba, Afrikaans: hardekool, Sotho: mohwelere-tšhipi, Tsonga: motswiri/mondzo, Zulu: impondondlovu) is a characteristic and often impressive bushwillow species of the southern Afrotropics. The medium to large tree[2] has a sparse, semi-deciduous canopy of grey-green leaves. The twigs and leaves are hairless as the name imberbe suggests. Its heartwood is dark brown, close-grained, very hard and heavy, as suggested by its vernacular name "leadwood", and durable; it is much sought after in the woodcarving industry.[3] The Hereros and Ovambos of Namibia attach special cultural and religious significance to the tree,[3] as to them it is the great ancestor of all animals and people, which must be passed with respect.

Range

[edit]

It is native to the mesic savannas of Africa south of the equator, from KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa, in the south to Tanzania in the north. It is a native tree in South Africa, eSwatini, Botswana, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Angola, Zambia and Tanzania. It is a protected tree in South Africa.[4]

Description

[edit]
A cross carved by 1860s travellers, as it appears 150 years later
The distinctively coarse, granulated bark

The largest bushwillow species of southern Africa[3] has a distinct habit and features. It has a spreading, rather sparse, roundish to slightly umbrella-shaped crown. The smallish, grey-green leaves and small, yellowish-green samaras are carried on spiny, attenuate branchlets.[5]

It typically grows 7 metres (23 ft) to 15 metres (49 ft) tall,[3] but may reach 20 metres (66 ft). In maturity the single, solid bole may be up 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) in diameter. The distinctive bark is pale to dark grey in colour, deeply fissured lengthwise.[2] Irregular horizontal cracks infuse the bark a fairly regular, coarse-grained appearance.

Radiocarbon dating, done in South Africa, has established that a leadwood tree can live up to 1070 ± 40 years.[3] A tree can remain standing for many years after it has died.

Uses

[edit]
  • The wood is dense and very hard, difficult to plane, but drills, sands and turns well. It is termite resistant. It was once used for railway sleepers and is now prized for ornamental work and furniture.
  • It burns very slowly with intense heat, and is often used for a fire which is intended to burn all night in order to keep wild animals at bay. It is sometimes used in a barbecue to provide a hot, long-lasting flame.
  • The ashes are used as whitewash for painting walls of kraal huts.
  • The ashes can also be used as toothpaste when mixed into a paste with water.

The ashes can also be added in a paste of tamarind, kneaded together to make a sweet smoothie. This is common among the Marembe people in Nyamapanda area.

[edit]
  • close-up of foliage
    close-up of foliage
  • flower buds and flowers
    flower buds and flowers
  • winged fruit
    winged fruit

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Combretum imberbe

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Combretum imberbe, commonly known as the leadwood or ivory tree, is a tree species in the family , native to southern and eastern , where it grows as a prominent component of savanna woodlands and riverine forests. This slow-growing tree can reach heights of 6–20 meters (rarely up to 30 meters) with a spreading crown and a crooked bole up to 1 meter in diameter, featuring distinctive light grey bark that flakes in rectangular patterns and silvery-grey, oblong leaves. Its wood is exceptionally dense and durable, with a specific gravity of around 1.2, earning it the name "leadwood" due to its heaviness, and it is renowned for its longevity, with some specimens estimated to exceed 1,000 years in age. Combretum imberbe is distributed across countries including , , , , , , , , , and , typically occurring in open woodlands, wooded savannas, and along seasonal watercourses from to 1,000 meters elevation. It thrives on a variety of soils, from sandy to alluvial and outcrops, in regions with annual rainfall of 400–1,000 mm, demonstrating good but sensitivity to . Ecologically, it plays a key role in its habitats by providing shade, stabilizing riverbanks, and serving as a food source for , including browsing by elephants and giraffes, though it faces threats from overharvesting, habitat loss, and climate-induced water stress. The tree holds significant cultural and economic value, with its hard, termite-resistant wood prized for furniture, carvings, fence posts, fuelwood, and production. Medicinally, various parts—such as roots, bark, and leaves—are used in traditional African medicine to treat ailments including , coughs, stomach pains, , , and skin infections, with scientific studies confirming antibacterial, , and antioxidant properties attributed to phytochemicals like , , and triterpenoids. Additionally, it yields edible gum used in and as a substitute from its leaves, underscoring its multifaceted importance in indigenous communities.

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Etymology

The genus name derives from a Latin term used by the Roman naturalist to describe a type of climbing plant. The specific epithet imberbe originates from the Latin imberbis, meaning "beardless," in reference to the hairless young branches and leaves of the species. Common names for Combretum imberbe reflect its notable wood properties and cultural significance across southern African languages. In English, it is called "leadwood" because of the wood's exceptional , which causes it to sink in water. The name "hardekool" translates to "hard ," highlighting the wood's and its ability to burn slowly and intensely like . It is also known as "mhoba-hoba" in some contexts. Zulu speakers refer to it as "impondondlovu," meaning "elephant trunk" and alluding to the deeply furrowed, trunk-like bark texture. In Herero, it is known as "Omumborombonga," regarded as a symbolizing ancestry and human origins in traditional lore.

Classification and synonyms

Combretum imberbe is a species of in the family , classified under the following taxonomic hierarchy: Kingdom Plantae, Phylum Tracheophyta, Class Magnoliopsida, Order , Family , Genus , Species imberbe. The accepted name is Combretum imberbe Wawra, first described in 1860. Several heterotypic synonyms have been proposed but are no longer accepted, including Combretum imberbe var. dielsii Engl., Combretum imberbe var. petersii (Klotzsch) Engl. & Diels, and Combretum primigenum Engl. Within the Combretaceae family, which comprises approximately 20 genera and 600 species of mostly tropical trees, shrubs, and lianas, is placed in the , the largest in the family with around 370 species predominantly distributed in tropical and , as well as parts of . Phylogenetically, belongs to the bushwillow group represented by the , characterized by its position within the order; it shares close relations with other African species in the , such as Combretum molle, based on morphological and distributional similarities in the family.

Description

Physical characteristics

Combretum imberbe is a medium to large tree that typically reaches a height of 7–20 m, with a crooked bole up to 1.5 m in diameter and a spreading canopy that can extend 18–22 m across. The trunk is single-stemmed in optimal conditions, though it may form multi-stemmed thickets in drier sites. The leaves are or sub-opposite, sometimes in whorls of up to seven, and measure 2.5–8 cm long by 1–3 cm wide, elliptic to obovate in shape with a grey-green upper surface and yellowish-green underside often covered in silvery scales. They are borne on petioles 4–10 mm long and frequently occur on short, spine-like lateral branchlets. The bark on mature trees is pale to dark grey, featuring deep longitudinal fissures interspersed with irregular horizontal cracks that create distinctive rectangular, block-like plates up to 5–10 mm deep. Young stems and branchlets are glabrous and often armed with spine-like projections. Flowers are creamy-white to yellow, sweetly scented, and arranged in axillary spikes or branched panicles 3–6 cm long, blooming from to ; each spike bears up to 30 bisexual flowers with small obovate petals 1–1.2 mm long and ovate-triangular sepals 1.5 mm long. The fruits are four-winged samaras, subcircular to broadly ovate and 1.3–2 cm across, initially yellowish-green with silvery scales and maturing to pale red or light brown, facilitating dispersal.

Growth and lifespan

Combretum imberbe exhibits an extremely slow growth rate, with mean annual increments ranging from 0.3 mm under unfavorable conditions to 2 mm under favorable ones. This sluggish radial expansion contributes to its characteristic longevity and structural durability in arid environments. The species displays a habit, manifesting as either a or a with a spreading crown, a crooked bole, and sparse branching, particularly on sandy soils where it can attain heights of up to 20 meters. Its lifespan is exceptionally long, with of specimens indicating ages up to 1,070 ± 40 years, making it one of the longest-lived trees in . Some individuals in optimal conditions may reach approximately 300 years, though most perish before exceeding 1 meter in trunk or 1,000 years. Growth is influenced by environmental factors, thriving exclusively in frost-free areas and demonstrating once established, which enhances its persistence in semi-arid savannas. Dead trees often remain upright for up to 80 years post-mortem, further underscoring the species' resilience.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Combretum imberbe is native to the southern Afrotropics, with its range extending from southern and in the north to , , , , , , , and . The species was first described in 1860 based on specimens from explorations in the region. Within , it is widespread in the provinces of , Mpumalanga, North West, and northern , occurring notably in protected areas such as . Historical records from 19th-century explorations highlight its prominence, including a carved into a mature leadwood tree in by trader Diocleciano Fernandes das Neves in the 1850s or 1860s, which remains visible more than 150 years later. There are no documented naturalized populations of C. imberbe outside its native African range.

Habitat preferences

Combretum imberbe, commonly known as leadwood, thrives in a variety of savanna ecosystems across southern Africa, particularly in mesic savannas, mixed woodlands, and riverine thickets within the lowveld and bushveld biomes. It is commonly found in nutrient-poor savannas dominated by families such as Combretaceae and Caesalpiniaceae, often near inland aquatic systems including wetlands, rivers, watercourses, and drainage lines. These habitats provide suitable conditions for its semi-deciduous growth form, with the species acting as a keystone element in ecosystems like Central Bushveld, Mopane Bushveld, and Arid Lowveld Bushveld. The species prefers warm, subtropical to tropical climates that are largely frost-free, with mean annual temperatures exceeding 18°C, hot summers ranging from 23–33°C, and milder dry winters of 16–25°C. Annual rainfall typically ranges from 300 to 850 mm, with strongly seasonal patterns featuring wet summers and dry winters. As a frost-sensitive , C. imberbe is vulnerable to cold snaps, limiting its occurrence in higher or more temperate zones. Soil preferences for Combretum imberbe include deep, sandy or loamy substrates that are well-drained, allowing for rapid rainwater infiltration and supporting its extensive . It tolerates soils of poor , such as those derived from granites, gneisses, or sandstones, but also occurs on heavier clayey or alluvial soils along river fringes, particularly eutrophic types with finer textures. The tree shows adaptability to varied soil conditions but is sensitive to and , which can degrade its preferred sites. Combretum imberbe is typically distributed at altitudes from 200 to 1,200 m above sea level, encompassing low to medium elevations across its range, such as 200–800 m in northern lowveld areas and up to 1,400 m in central bushveld regions. In mixed woodlands, it frequently co-occurs with Acacia species, including Vachellia and Senegalia (formerly Acacia), as well as other trees like Combretum apiculatum, Sclerocarya birrea, and Colophospermum mopane, contributing to diverse canopy structures in these biomes.

Ecology

Reproduction and phenology

Combretum imberbe exhibits a distinct reproductive cycle adapted to its seasonal environment in . Flowering occurs primarily from November to March, corresponding to the spring and summer months in the , with spikes of bisexual, sweetly scented cream-yellow flowers appearing irregularly on current season's growth. is primarily entomophilous, facilitated by attracted to the nectar-rich spike inflorescences, though specific pollinators remain understudied for this species. Fruiting follows shortly after , with four-winged samaras developing from February to August, maturing during the autumn and winter periods when the fruits turn from pale green to brown and persist on the for extended periods. Each samara contains a single and is adapted for anemochory, with the wings enabling dispersal up to 50 meters from the parent , potentially aided by the ' height. Zoochory may also contribute, though Meyer's parrots (Poicephalus meyeri) primarily act as predators by consuming the fruits, with limited dispersal benefits observed in ecosystems. Regeneration in C. imberbe is predominantly sexual via , though is slow and challenging, typically occurring in 1–2 weeks under moist conditions but with low success rates of 3–5% and high subsequent mortality. remain viable for several years when stored within the , supporting occasional despite the species' overall slow growth. Vegetative reproduction, while possible through —where up to 88% of harvested trees resprout effectively—is less common in natural settings and not the primary mode of propagation.

Ecological interactions

Combretum imberbe plays a significant role in savanna ecosystems as a provider of shade and , contributing to local . Its dense canopy offers shelter for and nesting sites for birds such as the southern ground-hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri) and African white-backed vulture (Gyps africanus), enhancing avian diversity in woodlands. The species experiences notable herbivory, with its foliage serving as a key food source for large mammals. Leaves are browsed by (Loxodonta africana), giraffes (Giraffa ), (Aepyceros melampus), (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), and ( angasii), particularly during the dry winter season when options are limited. This browsing pressure is reflected in its Zulu name "impondondlovu," meaning "elephant tree," due to frequent utilization and physical damage by , though the thick, rough bark offers some resistance while the palatable leaves are preferentially consumed. High browsing can retard growth in young trees, but established individuals tolerate it without severe impacts. In fire-prone savannas, the tree's thick bark provides protection against low-intensity fires, insulating the and enabling survival of mature stems. Following damage from higher-intensity burns or mechanical injury, it exhibits strong resprouting capacity through , with success rates up to 88% when cut at optimal heights, allowing rapid regeneration. As an indicator , the presence of C. imberbe signals stable, undisturbed with sweetveld conditions conducive to , reflecting ecosystem health and fertility.

Human uses

Traditional and cultural uses

Combretum imberbe holds significant medicinal value in traditional African practices, particularly among communities in . Bark decoctions are commonly employed to treat wounds, skin conditions such as , and , while infusions serve as remedies for ailments, , and . Leaf smoke is inhaled to alleviate coughs, colds, and chest complaints, and flower infusions are used for cough relief. These applications reflect the tree's role in , supported by phytochemical studies indicating and properties in leaf extracts. In Namibian indigenous cultures, C. imberbe is revered as a known locally as Omumborombonga by the Herero and Ovambo peoples. It is considered the ancestral origin of humanity, animals, and , with beliefs tracing the of the first humans from its branches. The tree serves as a site for rituals and holds profound spiritual importance, embodying connections to ancestors and the natural world. Practical uses of C. imberbe extend to everyday community needs. The wood's durability makes its branches and poles ideal for constructing fences and enclosures. Ashes from the burned wood, rich in lime, are applied as a for walls, mixed with water to form , or used as a flavoring agent—functioning as a —in boiled pastes to prepare traditional beverages. The tree's edible gum provides a supplementary resource.

Commercial and industrial uses

The wood of Combretum imberbe, commonly known as leadwood, exhibits exceptional density with a specific gravity ranging from 0.96 to 1.22 at 12% moisture content, rendering it capable of sinking in water. This high density contributes to its renowned durability and termite resistance, making it resistant to insect damage and decay even in ground contact. Furthermore, the wood burns slowly, delivering sustained, intense heat ideal for prolonged combustion. Due to these properties, leadwood timber is highly valued in commercial applications for its strength and . It is commonly employed in the manufacture of furniture, intricate carvings, and turned objects such as tool handles and walking sticks. Historically, its robustness made it suitable for heavy-duty like railway sleepers and mine props, though such uses have declined with the advent of alternative materials. As a fuel source, wood is preferred for and production across its native regions, owing to its high calorific value and clean-burning characteristics that produce minimal smoke. This efficiency supports both domestic heating and small-scale industrial processes, such as brick kilns. The bark, rich in , finds industrial application in leather tanning, where it is boiled to extract compounds for processing hides. The wood's hardness has also enabled its use in historical engravings; for instance, a carved by Portuguese trader Diocleciano Fernandes das Neves into a leadwood trunk in the 1870s remains discernible today, underscoring its resistance to weathering.

Conservation

Status and threats

Combretum imberbe is classified as Least Concern at the national level in , though it is a protected species under national legislation to prevent . Globally, the species is not listed as threatened on the , reflecting its wide distribution and relative stability across much of its range. However, its extremely slow growth rate—estimated at approximately 0.33 mm per year radially—renders it regionally vulnerable, particularly in , where maturation can take centuries, limiting natural recovery from disturbances. The primary threats to C. imberbe include overharvesting for high-quality timber used in furniture and , as well as for fuelwood, which selectively targets mature individuals and disrupts population structure. Habitat loss driven by and further exacerbates declines, converting woodlands into croplands or settlements and fragmenting remaining populations. In certain areas, such as protected savannas in , elephant browsing poses an additional pressure, damaging young saplings and bark of established trees, though this is more pronounced in regions with high densities. Population trends indicate stability within protected areas, where harvesting is restricted, but declines outside these zones due to unchecked exploitation and habitat conversion. The ' slow maturation hinders regeneration, as new recruits face high mortality from both human activities and environmental stresses before reaching reproductive age. Monitoring efforts, including of wood samples, have identified individuals exceeding 1,000 years in age, underscoring the long-term risks of and the need for sustained conservation to maintain ancient lineages.

Protection efforts

In , Combretum imberbe is classified as a protected under the National Forests Act (No. 84 of 1998), which prohibits any person from cutting, disturbing, damaging, or destroying the , or possessing, collecting, removing, transporting, exporting, purchasing, selling, or donating any part or product thereof without a permit issued by the relevant authority. This legal framework aims to regulate exploitation given the ' slow growth rate and commercial value for timber and fuelwood. Additionally, it receives provincial protection in under the Venda Nature Conservation and National Parks Act (No. 20 of ), extending safeguards in the lowveld regions where it is prevalent. The tree is conserved in situ within several protected areas across its range, including in , where it contributes to the characteristic savanna woodlands and benefits from the park's comprehensive biodiversity management strategies that limit habitat alteration and resource extraction. In eSwatini, populations are safeguarded in reserves such as Malolotja Nature Reserve (1,820 ha) and Mlawula Nature Reserve (16,500 ha), falling within Acacia Savannah and Drier Acacia Savannah biomes that support its preferences. Research on supports potential ex-situ conservation efforts, revealing that direct seeding yields low rates of 3-5%, improved slightly by pre-soaking seeds and maintaining them in moist sand, though high mortality remains a challenge. emerges as a more viable method, with 88% of harvested trees regenerating successfully when cut at an optimal height of 1 m, informing guidelines for sustainable harvesting and restoration planting. Community-based management initiatives address illegal harvesting pressures, particularly in communal lands like in , where up to 20.1% of the local population relies on C. imberbe for fuelwood and income. Recommendations include implementing to enhance establishment and reduce , fostering local involvement in monitoring and sustainable use practices to balance conservation with livelihood needs. In , priorities for future actions emphasize and research to establish ex-situ collections, as no such programs currently exist due to funding constraints.

References

  1. https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Combretum+imberbe
  2. https://www.dffe.gov.za/sites/default/files/reports/research/forestry/combretumimberbewarwa_researchinformation.pdf
  3. https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Combretum+imberbe
  4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391214318_The_leadwood_tree_Combretum_imberbe_Wawra_family_Combretaceae_Medicinal_uses_and_ethnopharmacological_properties
  5. https://www.malawiflora.com/speciesdata/species.php?species_id=141940
  6. https://www.sabisabi.com/discover/wild-facts/leadwood-tree
  7. https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201511/39433gen1161.pdf
  8. https://theculturetrip.com/africa/namibia/articles/7-fascinating-myths-and-legends-from-namibia
  9. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:170163-1
  10. https://redlist.sanbi.org/species.php?species=2039-26
  11. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6268318/
  12. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331508-2
  13. https://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000616388
  14. https://www.mozambiqueflora.com/speciesdata/species.php?species_id=141940
  15. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9951921/
  16. https://prota.prota4u.org/protav8.asp?g=pe&p=Combretum+imberbe
  17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/30509191_Life-span_of_leadwood_trees
  18. https://pza.sanbi.org/combretum-imberbe
  19. https://www.sanparks.org/parks/kruger/explore/heritage/das-neves-cross
  20. https://www.sanbi.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/2021_Ecosystem-Guidelines-for-the-Savanna-Biome.pdf
  21. https://treesa.org/combretum-imberbe/
  22. https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01177.x
  23. https://www.krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_Park_Facts-travel/explore-kruger-vegetation-trees.html
  24. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/340408-Combretum-imberbe
  25. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/151e/35aab26e9ec9c6578291a08dd0b1852c15e9.pdf
  26. https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6382/12/2/264
  27. https://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:168648/FULLTEXT01.pdf
  28. https://fabiankrautwald.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/branches_of_memory_colonialis-copy-1.pdf
  29. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23502376
  30. https://www.wood-database.com/leadwood/
  31. https://www.krugerpark.co.za/joao-albasini-kruger-national-park.html
  32. https://journals.co.za/doi/10.10520/EJC96337
  33. https://www.dffe.gov.za/sites/default/files/reports/stateoftheforestsreport_2021.pdf
  34. https://conservationfrontlines.org/2020/04/elephants-a-crisis-of-too-many-not-too-few/
  35. https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/saf128821.pdf
  36. https://www.fao.org/4/i3825e/i3825e65.pdf
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