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Transverse crevasses, Chugach State Park, Alaska

A crevasse is a deep crack that forms in a glacier or ice sheet. Crevasses form as a result of the movement and resulting stress associated with the shear stress generated when two semi-rigid pieces above a plastic substrate have different rates of movement. The resulting intensity of the shear stress causes a breakage along the faces.

Description

[edit]
A crevasse in Tangra Mountains, Antarctica

Crevasses often have vertical or near-vertical walls, which can then melt and create seracs, arches, and other ice formations.[1] These walls sometimes expose layers that represent the glacier's stratigraphy. Crevasse size often depends upon the amount of liquid water present in the glacier. A crevasse may be as deep as 45 metres (150 ft) and as wide as 20 metres (70 ft)[2]

The presence of water in a crevasse can significantly increase its penetration. Water-filled crevasses may reach the bottom of glaciers or ice sheets and provide a direct hydrologic connection between the surface,[3] where significant summer melting occurs, and the bed of the glacier, where additional water may moisten and lubricate the bed and accelerate ice flow.[4][5] Direct drains of water from the top of a glacier, known as moulins, can also contribute the lubrication and acceleration of ice flow.[5]

Types

[edit]
A man crosses a crevasse in Easton Glacier, Mount Baker, in the North Cascades, Washington.
  • Longitudinal crevasses form parallel to flow where the glacier width is expanding. They develop in areas of tensile stress, such as where a valley widens or bends. They are typically concave down and form an angle greater than 45° with the margin.[6]
  • Splaying crevasses appear along the edges of a glacier and result from shear stress from the margin of the glacier and longitudinal compressing stress from lateral extension. They extend from the glacier's margin and are concave up with respect to glacier flow, making an angle less than 45° with the margin.
  • Transverse crevasses are the most common crevasse type. They form in a zone of longitudinal extension where the principal stresses are parallel to the direction of glacier flow, creating extensional tensile stress. These crevasses stretch across the glacier transverse to the flow direction, or cross-glacier. They generally form where a valley becomes steeper.[6]

Dangers

[edit]
The glacier Taschachferner below the Wildspitze (left, 3.768 m) in Tyrolia in Austria in April 2005. There are some zones with large open crevasses, e.g., the spot-shaped area below the middle of the image and most right. The line marks the ascent track of mountaineers on skis which intentionally avoided these dangerous areas.

Falling into glacial crevasses can be dangerous and life-threatening.[7] Some glacial crevasses (such as on the Khumbu Icefall at Mount Everest) can be 50 metres (160 ft) deep, which can cause fatal injuries upon falling.[8] Hypothermia is often a cause of death when falling into a crevasse.[2]

A crevasse may be covered, but not necessarily filled, by a snow bridge made of the previous years' accumulation and snow drifts. The result is that crevasses are rendered invisible, and thus potentially lethal to anyone attempting to navigate across a glacier. Occasionally a snow bridge over an old crevasse may begin to sag, providing some landscape relief, but this cannot be relied upon.[9]: 343 

The danger of falling into a crevasse can be minimized by roping together multiple climbers into a rope team,[9]: 340  and the use of friction knots.[10]

See also

[edit]
  • Bergschrund – Crevasse between moving glacier ice and the stagnant ice or firn above
  • Bowie Crevasse Field – Landform
  • Glaciology – Scientific study of ice and natural phenomena involving ice
  • Crevasse rescue – Technique in mountaineering

References

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Crevasse

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A crevasse is a deep, wedge-shaped crack or fissure that forms in the surface of a or due to the stresses imposed by the ice's movement. These openings typically develop in the upper 50 meters (160 feet) of the , where the ice behaves brittly rather than plastically, and can reach widths of up to 20 meters (66 feet) and depths exceeding 45 meters (148 feet). Crevasses are a universal feature of flowing worldwide, serving as visible indicators of internal ice dynamics. Crevasses form primarily when the glacier experiences tensile or shear stresses that exceed the ice's elastic limit, often as it flows over irregular , around obstacles, or through varying speeds—such as faster central flow compared to slower margins constrained by walls. This stretching or shearing causes the ice to , with patterns revealing the direction and intensity of glacier motion; for instance, transverse crevasses appear perpendicular to flow in accelerating upper sections, while chevron-shaped shear crevasses angle up-valley near lateral margins due to drag against . Common types include longitudinal crevasses parallel to the flow direction, marginal ones along the edges, and specialized forms like bergschrunds, which separate the moving from stagnant at the headwall. Beyond their role in illustrating glacier processes—such as , deformation, and through feature tracking—crevasses pose severe hazards to mountaineers, skiers, and researchers traversing glaciated . They are often concealed by fragile bridges that can collapse under weight, leading to potentially fatal falls into the abyss, compounded by risks of , injury, or entrapment. Additionally, crevasses contribute to the formation of unstable seracs (tall ice towers) and moulins (vertical shafts for ), influencing hydrology and stability, and they have been implicated in events like ice-shelf disintegration. Safe navigation requires specialized equipment, training in , and techniques like roped travel to mitigate these dangers.

Overview

Definition

A crevasse is a deep, open crack or that forms in the surface of a or as a result of tensile stress exceeding the ice's capacity to deform plastically. These fractures are a common feature of moving glacial ice, manifesting as brittle structures that reveal internal stresses within the ice mass. The term "crevasse" derives from the French word crevasse, meaning "crack" or "cleft," originating from crever ("to break"). Crevasses exhibit varied physical properties depending on the glacier's dynamics and environment, with depths typically ranging from a few meters to over 30 meters, though some can extend up to 45 meters in air-filled cases. Widths vary from millimeters to tens of meters, often featuring near-vertical, V- or wedge-shaped profiles with irregular, jagged ice walls. They are frequently bridged by snow, which can conceal them and lead to sudden collapses under weight, posing significant hazards. Unlike moulins, which are near-vertical shafts formed primarily for water drainage into the , or seracs, which are towering ice pinnacles created by intersecting fractures often in icefalls, crevasses represent primarily horizontal or tensile fractures in the ice surface. They occur globally on temperate and polar , ice sheets, and ice shelves, with prominent examples on ice shelves like those in Palmer Land and on Alpine glaciers such as the Glacier in . These features arise from the stresses associated with glacial movement but are distinct from deeper structural processes.

Formation Processes

Crevasses primarily form due to tensile stresses generated as glaciers flow over uneven , causing the to stretch and when the stress exceeds the tensile strength of the , approximately 1 MPa (1000 kPa). Shear stresses at the boundaries between faster- and slower-moving also contribute, particularly along lateral margins where differential motion shears the apart. These stresses arise from the glacier's overall deformation under , with tensile forces dominating in zones of longitudinal extension. In the key processes of crevasse formation, extension occurs predominantly in the upper layers of the , where surface flows faster than the deeper, more resistant layers due to reduced basal , leading to brittle failure and crack initiation. Conversely, in compression zones downstream, such as where the flattens, overlying squeezes together, causing existing crevasses to close or heal through deformation. This dynamic interplay of extension and compression governs the and of crevasses across the surface. Several environmental factors influence crevasse development. Higher velocities in fast-flowing glaciers amplify differential stresses and increase crevasse frequency by accelerating strain accumulation. Steeper slopes enhance flow rates and tensile forces, promoting more extensive fracturing, while ice temperature affects rheology: warmer ice (near the melting point) deforms more ductily under Glen's flow law, potentially delaying fracture until higher strains, whereas colder ice behaves more brittly at lower strain rates. The formation of crevasses is fundamentally tied to the glaciological , described by the longitudinal extensional ε=∂u∂x\varepsilon = \frac{\partial u}{\partial x}, where uu is the in the flow direction xx. This captures how spatial gradients in create differential stretching; using Glen's flow law ε=Aτn\varepsilon = A \tau^n (with n≈3n \approx 3), crevasses form when the surface extensional exceeds a critical value, typically around 0.01 a^{-1} for temperate . Crevasses can form rapidly, often within hours to days in response to sudden velocity changes or surges, but they evolve over seasonal to annual timescales as stresses fluctuate with input or snow loading. Historical observations from 19th-century explorer , who studied Alpine glaciers, noted this quick initial opening followed by slower widening, providing early insights into the transient nature of crevasse development.

Types and Characteristics

Longitudinal Crevasses

Longitudinal crevasses are fractures in ice that form parallel to the direction of ice flow, typically in the central zones where transverse extensional stresses are relatively uniform across the width. These crevasses arise from transverse tensile stresses that stretch the ice laterally, often in regions of spreading flow such as near termini or in broader sections. In general, they develop where the experiences uniform lateral extension, contrasting with more variable shear near the margins. The formation of longitudinal crevasses is driven by the glacier's response to tensile stress from lateral , particularly as decelerates or spreads after constricted valleys. This process is common in fast-flowing outlet glaciers, such as those draining the , where surface accumulation and basal sliding contribute to the extension. For instance, at Narsap Sermia outlet glacier in , longitudinal crevasses are prevalent in the central region, reflecting lateral shear dynamics. These crevasses, also known as splaying crevasses near termini, are characteristically longer than they are wide or deep, often extending up to several kilometers in length while remaining relatively shallow, with depths typically less than 30-50 meters before closing under overlying . They tend to be spaced evenly, forming extensive crevasse fields that reveal the glacier's flow dynamics. Spacing varies widely, often tens to hundreds of meters depending on thickness and strain rates. At in , a prominent tidewater outlet, longitudinal crevasses pattern the central flow zone, as observed in Landsat from missions dating back to 1972, highlighting acceleration and lateral spreading patterns.

Transverse Crevasses

Transverse crevasses are fractures in that extend across the to the direction of flow, often forming arcuate or fan-like patterns that reflect variations in strain rates. These crevasses develop in zones of longitudinal extension, where tensile stresses dominate due to accelerating movement, typically triggered by steepening surface slopes, icefalls, or convex profiles that cause differential velocities. In such settings, the transition from slower upstream flow to faster downstream motion stretches the , opening cracks at right angles to the principal extension direction. Formation of transverse crevasses is closely tied to extensional flow regimes, where the glacier's velocity increases, such as at the base of steep slopes or over bedrock steps that promote acceleration. Unlike areas of uniform flow, these crevasses initiate near the glacier margins and propagate inward, influenced by the glacier's surface profile and basal topography, with critical strain rates around 3.5 × 10^{-5} day^{-1} sufficient to fracture previously uncrevassed firn. In icefalls, where flow is highly turbulent, the resulting crevasses exhibit chaotic orientations and irregular spacing due to intense shearing and rapid extension. These features are characteristically shorter in length compared to other crevasse types but can reach depths exceeding 50 meters in Alpine settings, with widths varying from 10 cm to over 4 meters; snow bridges often span them, though these can weaken seasonally. At glacier margins, transverse crevasses may splay outward where ice diverges, forming curved patterns concave up-glacier near edges and straightening toward the centerline. Representative examples include the Kaskawulsh Glacier in , , where 20th-century observations documented transverse crevasses with average depths of about 26 meters and spacings of 75 meters, showing gradual widening over time, and the Worthington Glacier in , featuring arcuate transverse patterns in accelerating flow zones. Transverse crevasses are predominantly distributed in high-relief glaciated regions, such as the and , where steep terrain and variable basal topography favor extensional stresses. In the , they are common on glaciers like the Allalin and Tälligletscher, marking transitions in slope and . Similarly, in the Zanskar range of the northwestern , thousands of transverse crevasses dominate mid-elevation zones between 4,200 and 4,800 meters, particularly on glaciers like Drang Drung and Haskira, where undulations drive localized acceleration.

Hazards and Safety

Risks to Humans

Crevasses present profound dangers to humans venturing onto glaciated terrain, primarily through concealed openings bridged by that can abruptly collapse under weight, precipitating falls into depths averaging 16.5 meters with ranges up to 35 meters. These bridges, hardened by wind-drifted accumulation during winter, often mask crevasses completely, deceiving even experienced travelers into treating the surface as solid . Falls of 10 to 30 meters frequently inflict severe physiological trauma, including fractures to limbs and , spinal injuries, and concussions from impacts against icy walls; in deeper crevasses, victims may drown in subglacial pools at the base. Prolonged entrapment heightens risks of , with core body temperatures dropping critically due to conductive heat loss in the confined, subzero environment, contributing to organ failure if rescue is delayed. Navigation near crevasse margins compounds these threats, as scaling or probing unstable walls can dislodge overlying , triggering that sweep climbers or skiers into the fissures or bury them outright. In the European Alps, such incidents have exacted a heavy toll, with 415 crevasse fall victims documented between 2000 and 2010 yielding an 11% , predominantly among males aged around 40 and foreign nationals comprising 67% of cases. Foreign participants, males, and those in winter conditions encounter elevated vulnerability, with deeper falls (median 15 meters) and higher mortality during ski season. Subsequent data from 2010 to 2020 recorded 321 victims in the alone, with fatalities at 6.5% and life-threatening injuries in 9.4%, underscoring a persistent hazard where fall depth directly correlates with injury severity (r=0.35). Falling into a crevasse accounts for 2% of accidents in the United States from 1947 to 2018, with a 52% fatality rate among such incidents. Mountaineers and skiers bear the brunt of these risks, accounting for 77% of incidents in Swiss accidents, often during unroped travel on steep or poorly snow-covered . Glaciologists and field researchers face comparable perils while mapping or sampling remote features, as evidenced by a 2016 Antarctic case on the West near , where a support pilot fell approximately 20 meters into a crevasse during fuel delivery for scientific operations, wedging vertically for three hours before extrication; despite minimal trauma, severe (core temperature 24.2°C) proved fatal after 18 hours of resuscitation. is exacerbating crevasse hazards through increased thinning and velocity, leading to more dynamic fracturing, as observed in 2025 studies on Alpine glaciers.

Detection and Crossing Techniques

Crevasses are frequently concealed by bridges, necessitating proactive detection to mitigate risks during glacier traversal. Traditional detection relies on probing the surface with poles or axes, using a systematic, overlapping pattern to identify voids or weak bridges before committing weight. This manual technique, emphasized in protocols, allows teams to map potential hazards and adjust routes accordingly. Advanced technologies enhance detection precision, particularly in large-scale expeditions. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) systems emit electromagnetic pulses to delineate subsurface ice structures, distinguishing crevasses from solid ice with high resolution. NASA's Operation IceBridge, operational since 2009, integrates GPR with airborne platforms to survey crevasse patterns across polar ice sheets, providing datasets that inform safer navigation paths. Similarly, LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) generates detailed topographic maps by laser-scanning the surface, revealing hidden fractures even under snow cover. Recent innovations include drone-mounted GPR, which conducted high-resolution subsurface mapping of glacier cavities in Switzerland in 2025, enabling remote assessment without endangering personnel. Crossing crevasses demands coordinated techniques to ensure team safety. Roped in groups of two to four, with climbers spaced 10-15 meters apart, allows the rope to arrest falls by distributing load across the team. For self-rescue after a fall, climbers employ prusik knots—friction hitches tied around the rope—to ascend incrementally, often alternating with foot loops for efficiency. The Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) outlines guidelines for these methods, recommending pre-rigged prusiks and secure anchors to facilitate rapid extraction. For wider crevasses, portable ladders or improvised snow bridges span gaps, secured by ice axes and ropes to support crossing one person at a time. Training protocols form the foundation of safe crevasse navigation, with standard courses dedicating sessions to awareness and hands-on practice. Programs accredited by organizations like the American Mountain Guides Association (AMGA) simulate falls and rescues on training glaciers, building proficiency in probing, roping, and self-extraction. By the , protocols incorporate drone-assisted surveys for pre-expedition , allowing teams to visualize crevasse fields remotely before entering the terrain. Roping techniques significantly enhance safety, with studies indicating they prevent most fatal outcomes by enabling timely arrests and rescues. According to Swiss Alpine Club emergency statistics, while crevasse falls rose to 70 incidents in 2022—nearly double the prior decade's average—roped teams experienced lower fatality rates, underscoring the method's effectiveness.

Scientific and Environmental Role

Glaciological Significance

Crevasses play a crucial role in elucidating glacier ice flow dynamics by serving as visible indicators of internal stress regimes, particularly tensional stresses that arise from ice extension and shear. The orientation and spacing of crevasses reflect the principal directions and magnitudes of these stresses, with longitudinal crevasses forming parallel to the flow in zones of lateral extension and transverse crevasses forming perpendicular to the flow in zones of longitudinal extension, both reflecting tensile stresses. By analyzing crevasse spacing, glaciologists can estimate glacier velocity, as wider spacing corresponds to the distance required for sufficient stress accumulation to initiate fracturing, thereby linking surface deformation to overall flow rates. Furthermore, observations of crevasse patterns inform models of basal sliding, where interactions between surface and basal crevasses help parameterize the decoupling of ice from the bed, enhancing predictions of glacier motion in numerical simulations. In research applications, crevasses facilitate direct access to englacial and subglacial environments for sampling and monitoring. Drilling into crevasses allows extraction of ice cores that capture layered disrupted by past fracturing, providing insights into historical deformation events and ice fabric . Additionally, crevasses act as primary conduits for routing, enabling scientists to trace surface-to-bed through fracture networks; and pressure measurements within crevasses reveal how water influences basal lubrication and seasonal flow acceleration. These pathways are critical for studying subglacial , as water ingress through crevasses modulates channel formation and beneath the . Historically, early 20th-century analyses of crevasse patterns laid foundational methods for flow prediction, with subsequent advancements integrating them into computational frameworks. Pioneering work on crevasse distributions enabled qualitative mapping of strain fields, evolving into quantitative tools for forecasting behavior. In modern , finite element models incorporate crevasse geometry to simulate deformation, resolving stress concentrations and at the scale of entire ice shelves. Crevasses function as natural strain gauges, recording cumulative deformation through their depth, width, and evolution, which correlate directly with local strain rates exceeding the ice's ductile threshold. To quantify these rates, researchers integrate crevasses with GPS networks for precise profiling and seismic sensors to detect micro-fracturing and elastic responses, yielding high-resolution maps of deformation across surfaces. This combined approach reveals spatiotemporal variations in ice , essential for validating models of long-term stability.

Climate Change Implications

Warmer temperatures driven by accelerate melting, which increases ice flow speeds and tensile stresses, resulting in higher crevasse formation rates and volumes, particularly in fast-flowing sectors of the . Observations from 2016 to indicate significant crevasse volume increases of up to 25% in marine-terminating glaciers, where accelerating flow due to enhanced lubrication from surface melt exacerbates cracking. These changes are most pronounced in the , where rising air temperatures have led to deeper and wider crevasses over recent decades. Climate-induced thinning of ice bridges and shelves further destabilizes crevasses, promoting collapses and structural failures. At in , expanding crevasses and rifts—intensified by warm ocean currents—signal potential ice shelf breakup, with damage processes accelerating mass loss. This weakening contributes to broader instability, as observed in increasing fracture propagation across the glacier's shear zones since the 1990s. Crevasses play a key role in environmental impacts by channeling meltwater more efficiently to glacier bases and the ocean, thereby hastening sea-level rise through enhanced basal sliding and ice discharge. In Greenland, meltwater infiltrating crevasses triggers faster ice movement and promotes calving events that release large icebergs, amplifying global sea-level contributions. Projections from ice-sheet models incorporating crevasse damage indicate that crevasse density and associated instability could intensify significantly by 2050 in vulnerable regions like the Embayment, potentially doubling mass loss rates if warming continues. Ongoing monitoring using the European Union's Copernicus satellites, operational since 2014, employs and AI techniques to track crevasse evolution in near-real time, aiding forecasts of these changes.

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