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A mastiff with a dewlap, seen connecting from the neck to the lower jaw.

A dewlap is a longitudinal flap of skin or similar flesh that hangs beneath the lower jaw or neck of many vertebrates. More loosely, it can be various similar structures in the neck area, such as those caused by a double chin or the submandibular vocal sac of a frog. More generally, it can be any hanging mass of skin, such as a fold of loose skin on an elderly person's neck, or the wattle of a bird. Dewlaps can be considered as a caruncle, defined as "a small, fleshy excrescence that is a normal part of an animal's anatomy".[1]

Etymology

[edit]

The word is first attested in the mid 1300s as dewelappe ("fold of skin that hangs from the throat of oxen and kine"), from lappe ("loose piece", from Old English læppa), but the first element *dew(e)- is of nebulous origin and meaning; it probably was altered by folk etymology with "dew". Old English had fræt-læppa in the aforementioned sense (and Middle English fresh-lappe). There also seems to be a cognate to Danish dialectal doglæp ("flap of skin that sweeps dew from grass, especially on the neck of an ox"),[2] but this might be a parallel independent development.

From the 1580s onward, it was applied to the fleshy fold or wattle of a turkey and also to a flaccid, elderly human throat.[3]

Mammals

[edit]
Common eland in Mapungubwe National Park
Eland in Mapungubwe National Park
A zebu with a large dewlap.
A zebu with a large dewlap.
A palomino rabbit displaying her dewlap beside a month-old kit

Many mammals such as dogs, rabbits and moose possess dewlaps. In zebu cattle, the dewlap is colloquially known as the "briefcase folds".[citation needed] The dewlap is also seen in both sexes of moose.

The giant eland and common eland both have skin flaps to aide in thermoregulation. Due to its high surface area to volume ratio, it may allow for efficient thermoregulation in larger common elands with larger dewlaps.[4]

Rabbits

[edit]

In rabbits, the dewlap is a secondary sex characteristic of female rabbits which grows once the doe reaches sexual maturity. In laboratory conditions, when a butyl alcohol extract of the urine of pregnant women was administered to male rabbits, they developed a dewlap, which then gradually disappeared once the administration ceased. If a female rabbit is ovarectomized before reaching maturity, the dewlap never develops, and even when an ovarectomy is performed on a mature female rabbit with a dewlap, the dewlap disappears gradually afterwards.[5] Near the end of pregnancy, the female rabbit will pluck fur from the dewlap to line a nest for her young.[6]

Reptiles and birds

[edit]
An anole lizard in Costa Rica repeatedly protracting and retracting its dewlap.

Many reptiles have dewlaps, most notably the anole family and Sitana genus of lizards, which have large skin dewlaps they can extend and retract. The anole family has been found to have enhanced vision for color and depth perception.[7] This family is able to see dewlap coloration from a distance, giving the dewlap use and importance. These dewlaps are usually of a different color from the rest of their body and, when enlarged, make the lizard seem much bigger than it really is. The dewlap is primarily used when indicating territorial boundaries and for males to attract females during the mating season. The pigments generating this color are pterins and carotenoids. These two pigments are the most easily seen through the anole's eyes. Pterin and carotenoid pigments are located throughout the tissue of the dewlap, creating yellow and red hues.[8] Lizards usually accompany dewlap movement with head bobs and other displays. The dewlap moves through extension and contraction. The muscles creating this movement are the ceratohyoid muscles and are connected to the hyoid apparatus in the throat and larynx area.[9] Though the purpose of these displays is unclear, the colors of the dewlap and the movements during the displays are thought to be a way of standing out against visual background noise.

An iguana with an extended dewlap.

Many birds also have dewlaps, including domestic chickens, some cracids and some guans.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Dewlap

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A dewlap is a pendulous fold of loose skin that hangs beneath the neck or throat of certain vertebrates, often serving as a specialized anatomical feature adapted to specific physiological or behavioral needs.[1] In mammals, dewlaps are prominent in large ungulates such as cattle, moose, and elands, where they typically occur in males of species exceeding 400 kg in body mass and are associated with thermoregulation through heat dissipation, as evidenced by infrared thermography showing elevated surface temperatures in these structures.[2] Unlike hypotheses of sexual selection or predator deterrence, which lack strong empirical support in these taxa, the thermoregulatory role aligns with the dewlaps' vascularization and exposure in hot environments.[2] In reptiles, particularly Anolis lizards, the dewlap is an extensible flap supported by the hyoid apparatus, displaying vibrant colors and patterns for visual communication, including mate attraction, territorial defense, and species recognition during dynamic head-bobbing displays.[3] These lizard dewlaps exhibit remarkable diversity, with over 65 unique combinations of six patterns and 13 colors observed across species, often converging independently rather than reflecting phylogenetic relationships.[3] Dewlaps also appear in birds, such as the wattled structures in turkeys and roosters, where they may aid in thermoregulation or signaling, though less extensively studied than in mammals and reptiles.[1] In veterinary contexts, dewlaps in animals like rabbits can become prone to infection under moist conditions, highlighting their role in everyday animal health management.[4] Overall, while dewlaps vary in form and function across taxa, they represent an evolutionary adaptation emphasizing display, cooling, or structural utility in diverse ecological niches.

Overview

Definition

A dewlap is a longitudinal flap or pendulous fold of loose skin that hangs beneath the lower jaw, throat, or neck of certain vertebrates.[2] This structure is typically composed of skin layers supported by underlying connective tissue, which provides flexibility and support.[4] In some species, additional components such as subcutaneous fat deposits contribute to its bulk and pendulous nature, while minimal muscle fibers may enable limited movement or extension.[4] Variations in dewlap composition and form occur across vertebrates, with the tissue often being extensible or inflatable due to elastic properties of the skin and vascular elements within the connective matrix.[5] For instance, in reptiles, it manifests as a foldable skin flap, whereas in mammals, it appears as a more static, hanging fold enriched with loose areolar tissue.[6] The dewlap is distinct from similar integumentary structures like wattles, which are paired, fleshy caruncles attached laterally to the head near the beak in birds, and combs, which form raised, vascular crests on the crown of the head.[7] Its defining feature is the specifically pendulous, midline positioning along the throat or neck, setting it apart from these more cranial or bilateral appendages.[8] Historical veterinary anatomy references, such as those in early texts on bovine morphology, describe the dewlap as a characteristic loose skin fold under the neck in cattle, while reptilian descriptions note it as a throat-based skin extension in lizards.[4][6]

Etymology

The term "dewlap" entered the English language in the Middle English period, with its earliest recorded use dating to 1398. It derives from the compound "dewlappe," combining "dew" (likely through folk etymology) and "lappe" or "lap," which stems from Old English læppa, meaning a loose hanging piece, fold, or flap of skin. The "dew" component may represent an alteration of an earlier, unattested element—possibly dunn ("down" or soft hair)—as the association with moisture does not align directly with the anatomical feature; scholars note this as a common case of reshaping for phonetic or associative familiarity.[9][10][11] Initially, "dewlap" described the pendulous fold of skin under the throat of bovine animals like oxen and cattle, reflecting its origins in medieval agricultural terminology. By the 16th century, following the introduction of turkeys from the Americas to Europe around 1520–1530, the word extended to the similar fleshy wattle on these birds. Its application to human anatomy emerged in the late 1590s, denoting sagging skin on the neck associated with age or excess.[9][11][12] In literary usage, the adjective "dew-lapped" gained prominence in the works of William Shakespeare, who employed it to evoke bovine or aged characteristics—for instance, in A Midsummer Night's Dream (c. 1595), Puck refers to an old woman's "withered dewlap," and in The Tempest (c. 1611), Gonzalo questions the existence of "mountaineers dewlapped like bulls." These references highlight the term's metaphorical flexibility by the early modern era.[13] During the 19th and 20th centuries, zoological texts adopted "dewlap" for comparable structures in reptiles and birds, marking a shift from primarily mammalian and human contexts to broader scientific nomenclature.[11]

Functions

Display and Communication

The dewlap plays a primary role in sexual selection particularly in reptiles such as lizards, where it is often larger and more colorful in males than in females, serving as an advertisement of genetic quality and physical condition. Males actively inflate or extend the dewlap during courtship displays to signal their body size, health, and vigor, thereby attracting potential mates and influencing female choice.[14] In territorial interactions, the dewlap functions as a visual deterrent, with individuals rapidly flashing or pulsing it to assert dominance and ward off rivals. This signaling is frequently combined with dynamic body movements, such as push-up displays, to amplify the threat and facilitate the defense of resources like feeding or breeding areas.[14][15] Dewlap characteristics, including distinct color patterns and extension sequences, aid in species recognition by providing unique visual cues that help individuals discriminate conspecifics from other species during mate selection, thereby reducing the risk of hybridization. Evolutionary analyses reveal that dewlap traits are shaped by sexual selection pressures in lizards, with morphological variations—such as increased brightness or size—linked to ecological factors like predation intensity; brighter dewlaps, for example, tend to evolve in habitats with reduced predator presence, balancing signaling efficacy against survival costs.[16] Dewlaps enhance multimodal communication by integrating visual signals with complementary behaviors, such as postural adjustments or acoustic cues, to convey more complex messages in social and reproductive contexts, thereby improving signal reliability and receiver response.[15][14] In birds, such as turkeys and roosters, wattled dewlaps may serve similar roles in display and communication, though these functions are less extensively studied.[1]

Thermoregulation and Other Physiological Roles

The dewlap contributes to thermoregulation by expanding the effective surface area for convective and radiative heat loss, which is particularly advantageous in large-bodied animals facing challenges from a low surface area-to-volume ratio. Its vascular structure enables vasodilation to increase blood flow near the skin surface, promoting heat dissipation through evaporation and conduction in hot conditions, while vasoconstriction can conserve heat in cooler climates. This mechanism aids in maintaining core body temperature across environmental fluctuations. In mammals, particularly ungulates, studies demonstrate that dewlap presence and size positively correlate with tropical habitat occupancy and body mass exceeding 400 kg, supporting a role in mitigating heat stress via enhanced evaporative cooling without reliance on behavioral adjustments.[2] Phylogenetic analyses indicate that thermoregulation drives dewlap evolution more than alternative functions like sexual selection, as structures appear in species from warmer biomes regardless of sexual dimorphism levels.[2] Beyond thermoregulation, the dewlap acts as a fat storage site in certain species, accumulating subcutaneous reserves that serve as an energy buffer during nutritional scarcity and contribute to overall body condition assessment. It also provides structural flexibility, allowing greater range of neck motion and reducing strain during locomotion or foraging by accommodating skin displacement.[17] However, the pendulous nature of the dewlap predisposes it to moisture retention from environmental exposure or salivary overflow, increasing vulnerability to bacterial infections such as moist dermatitis, which can lead to localized inflammation if untreated. In mammals, evolutionarily, dewlaps have developed prominently in lineages inhabiting arid or hot regions, with size variations primarily tied to climatic demands rather than social or reproductive pressures alone.[4]

Occurrence in Mammals

Ruminants and Ungulates

In ruminants and ungulates, dewlaps occur prominently in males of large species exceeding 400 kg body mass, such as wild examples including moose (Alces alces) and elands (Taurotragus oryx), where they aid thermoregulation through increased surface area for heat dissipation, as shown by elevated temperatures in infrared imaging.[2] These structures are also well-developed in tropical-adapted domestic breeds of cattle and goats, forming a distinctive pendulous fold of skin extending from the lower jaw to the chest. Bos indicus (zebu) cattle breeds, such as the Brahman, exhibit particularly large dewlaps in mature bulls, serving as a key morphological trait for heat dissipation in arid conditions.[18] Similarly, Boer goats display well-developed dewlaps, often more pronounced in males, which contribute to their breed's characteristic profile alongside long, drooping ears.[19] These structures are absent or minimal in temperate breeds like the Holstein dairy cow, highlighting a clear distinction between Bos taurus and Bos indicus lineages.[20] Anatomically, the dewlap consists of loose, folded skin with underlying subcutaneous fat deposits that provide structural support and elasticity, allowing it to hang pendulously without restricting movement. This feature is typically more extensive in males and increases with age due to fat accumulation and skin laxity, varying by breed; for instance, zebu cattle show exaggerated sizes compared to humpless African Bos taurus breeds.[18] In agricultural contexts, selective breeding has amplified dewlap size in zebu lines for enhanced thermoregulatory efficiency in hot climates, while some programs aim to reduce it in crossbreeds to improve aesthetics or reduce injury risk.[21] Evolutionarily, the dewlap in Bos indicus ruminants originated in African and Asian lineages as an adaptation to arid and subtropical environments, where the increased surface area facilitates evaporative cooling through greater blood flow and sweat gland activity.[22] Across ungulates more broadly, dewlaps have evolved convergently in large species for similar thermoregulatory benefits, preserved through natural selection in wild populations and intensified by human-mediated selection in livestock husbandry, aiding survival in regions with high temperatures and low humidity.[23][2] Practically, dewlaps play a role in breed identification during livestock shows and auctions, where size and conformation are judged as indicators of tropical heritage.[18] However, they can pose veterinary challenges, such as abscess formation from trauma or puncture wounds, which may lead to localized infections requiring lancing and antibiotic treatment.[24]

Lagomorphs and Other Mammals

In lagomorphs, the dewlap refers to a pendulous fold of loose skin beneath the chin and throat, most notably developed in female rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and to a lesser extent in hares (Lepus species).[25] This structure serves as a secondary sex characteristic influenced by estrogen, becoming more prominent during reproductive maturity to facilitate nest-building; females pluck fur from the dewlap to line nests for their offspring, providing insulation and warmth.[26] In males, dewlaps are typically smaller or absent, though some intact bucks may develop minor folds due to hormonal factors.[27] While dewlaps are minimal and often inconspicuous in wild lagomorph populations—likely an adaptation to reduce vulnerability in natural environments—they are more exaggerated in domestic rabbit breeds, such as Flemish Giants or Angoras, due to selective breeding for aesthetic or genetic traits.[28] These enlarged dewlaps can lead to health issues, including moist dermatitis or "wet dewlap," where damp conditions cause bacterial infections (Pseudomonas species) in the skin folds, particularly if the rabbit's drinking habits or housing exposes the area to moisture.[29] In humid habitats, such infections pose a greater risk to captive or escaped domestic lagomorphs, though wild individuals with slimmer dewlaps experience lower incidence.[30] Beyond lagomorphs, dewlaps appear in various other mammals as loose skin folds serving structural or protective roles. In canids, such as the Bloodhound, the dewlap consists of pendulous skin around the neck and throat, enhancing mobility by allowing the skin to shift without restricting underlying muscle movement during hunting or tracking.[31] This feature is breed-specific, prominent in scent hounds for accommodating extended head-lowered postures.[32] In felids, mature male leopards (Panthera pardus) exhibit a well-developed dewlap of loose throat skin, which grows with age and may aid in displays or provide padding during territorial conflicts, though its exact function remains under study.[33] Developmentally, lagomorph dewlaps enlarge post-puberty in response to reproductive hormones, with size varying by genetics, diet, and spaying status—intact females often show the most pronounced growth, while neutering can prevent excessive accumulation.[26] In domestic breeds, hereditary factors amplify this trait, sometimes leading to welfare concerns like chronic irritation if not managed.[27] For wild lagomorphs in humid regions, the subtler dewlap morphology helps mitigate infection risks, supporting overall population health amid environmental stressors like moisture-related pathogens.[4]

Occurrence in Reptiles

Lizards

In lizards, particularly in the infraorder Iguania, such as anoles (genus Anolis, family Dactyloidae)[34] and the family Iguanidae, dewlaps are extensible flaps of skin located beneath the throat, prominently featured in species such as Anolis lizards (anoles) and the green iguana (Iguana iguana). These structures are supported by the hyoid apparatus, specifically the second ceratobranchial cartilage, which enables rapid extension through a lever-like mechanism involving the hyoid bones and associated musculature.[35][36] In Anolis equestris, for instance, contraction of the M. ceratohyoideus pulls the ceratohyals posteriorly, pivoting the ceratobranchials forward to unfurl the dewlap in phases: initial protraction of the hyoid, followed by downward pivoting and skin expansion.[37] Retraction occurs via antagonistic muscles, including the M. sternohyoideus and M. hyoglossus, which draw the hyoid back to its resting position, allowing quick pulsing motions.[38][39] The dewlap's skin is thin and highly elastic, often covered in small scales and pigmented for vibrancy, with size, shape, and coloration varying markedly across species to reflect phylogenetic and ecological differences. In the green anole (Anolis carolinensis), the male dewlap is typically pink to orange, spanning up to 7 cm when extended, while females usually lack a prominent dewlap or possess a reduced, less colorful version.[5][40] In Iguana iguana, the dewlap forms a pendulous, scalable flap up to 30 cm long in adults, with subtle coloration dominated by the lizard's overall green hue but expandable via the same hyoid-driven mechanics.[41] These variations arise from differences in cartilage length, muscle fiber composition, and skin elasticity, with larger dewlaps supported by elongated ceratobranchials for greater extension range.[42][43] Habitat influences dewlap morphology in Caribbean anoles, where over 400 Anolis species have undergone adaptive radiation, resulting in diverse forms adapted to island environments. Species in dense foliage habitats, such as trunk-crown ecomorphs, exhibit larger dewlaps—up to 20% of body length—to facilitate visibility amid cluttered vegetation, whereas trunk-ground ecomorphs have smaller, more subdued versions suited to open perches.[3][44] This ecomorphological pattern underscores how hyoid modifications enable habitat-specific mechanics without altering core extension principles.[45][46] Similar hyoid apparatuses in fossil squamates, such as those preserved in Late Triassic specimens like Cryptovaranoides microlanius (dated to ~205 million years ago), recently confirmed as a crown-group squamate,[47] suggest that dewlap-like extensible throat structures may have been present in early lizard lineages, inferred from cartilage impressions and skeletal supports analogous to modern iguanids.[48][49] In living species, these mechanics integrate with behaviors like dewlap extension during courtship, where rapid pulses enhance signal precision through precise muscle control.[50]

Other Reptiles

In non-lizard reptiles, structures analogous to dewlaps are rare and typically manifest as subtle, non-inflatable folds of loose skin in the throat or neck region, serving functional roles in feeding, movement, or respiration rather than display. These features lack the colorful, extendable nature seen in lizards and are adapted to the specific lifestyles of snakes, turtles, and other groups.[51] In snakes, the neck skin exhibits remarkable distensibility to facilitate the ingestion of large prey through macrostomy, a derived trait enabling whole-prey consumption. Mechanical analyses reveal that snake skin properties vary longitudinally, with the neck region capable of significant stretching—up to 25% more extensible in species like boa constrictors following large meals—to accommodate prey size without tearing. This loose, elastic skin forms temporary folds during swallowing, particularly in constrictors such as pythons, where it expands to envelop oversized items like mammals or birds.[52][53] Among turtles (chelonians), subtle throat folds appear in the gular region, the anterior portion of the plastron, where flexible, leathery skin predominates in species like softshell turtles (Trionychidae). In these aquatic or semi-aquatic forms, the gular skin lacks rigid scutes and instead consists of a thinner corneous layer, allowing flexibility for neck extension during feeding or burrowing into substrate. This structure supports gular pumping, a ventilatory mechanism involving throat expansion to assist lung inflation, especially in species without diaphragms. Gular scutes in hard-shelled chelonians resemble reduced flaps but are bony projections integrated into the shell for protection rather than extension.[54][55] Dewlap-like structures are absent in most crocodilians, whose integument is dominated by thick, armored osteoderms that prioritize defense and hydrodynamic efficiency over flexible throat flaps. In captive reptiles, such as turtles and snakes, loose gular or neck skin can be susceptible to bacterial infections if hygiene is poor, often requiring veterinary intervention like topical antifungals.[56][51] Evolutionarily, these reduced throat structures in non-lizard reptiles may represent homologous loose integument to that in lizards but are minimized in aquatic or burrowing species for streamlining and reduced drag. The scarcity of prominent dewlaps outside lizards correlates with diminished reliance on visual signaling, as snakes and turtles emphasize chemosensory or tactile cues in often obscured or underwater habitats.[57]

Occurrence in Birds

Galliformes and Related Species

In Galliformes, dewlaps, commonly known as wattles, are prominent in species such as the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) and various pheasants (family Phasianidae), where they appear as reddish, fleshy, pendulous, and highly vascularized appendages hanging from the throat or neck.[58][59] These structures are integral to the bird's head ornamentation, often connected to the comb—a fleshy crest on the crown—in a continuous expanse of bare skin that facilitates rapid physiological changes.[60] In wild turkeys, the wattle typically measures several inches in length and can enlarge or contract in size through blood engorgement, particularly during the breeding season when males display heightened activity.[61] Domestic breeds exhibit variations, with heritage turkeys often featuring more prominent and elongated wattles compared to their wild counterparts, a result of selective breeding that emphasized exaggerated physical traits for visual appeal and robustness.[62] The adaptive roles of these dewlaps in ground-dwelling Galliformes include the wattles undergoing color shifts—from pale to vivid red or blue—correlating with states of arousal or excitement, serving as quick visual indicators of the bird's condition.[63] Due to their dense vascular network, these structures also contribute to thermoregulation by dissipating excess heat during physical exertion.[64] Historical domestication of Galliformes has prominently shaped dewlap characteristics, with early selective breeding in poultry like turkeys and chickens prioritizing larger, more conspicuous wattles to enhance breed distinctiveness and as markers of vitality in breeding stock.[65] In modern contexts, swollen wattles serve as diagnostic indicators for diseases such as fowl pox, a viral infection that causes proliferative lesions and edema in the unfeathered skin of affected birds, including turkeys and chickens.[66] Across related species like guineafowl (Numida meleagris) and domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus), dewlaps exhibit similar fleshy, vascular morphology, with size variations strongly tied to social hierarchy; dominant males typically possess larger, more pronounced wattles, reflecting their status in peck-order dynamics and influencing access to resources.[67][68] In guineafowl, for instance, adult males display elongated, upward-folded wattles that exceed those of females, underscoring sex- and rank-based dimorphism in these communal flocks.[69]

Seabirds and Other Avian Groups

In seabirds, the magnificent frigatebird (Fregata magnificens) exemplifies the use of an inflatable gular pouch as a prominent dewlap-like structure. This pouch, a thin, elastic membrane connected to the lungs via an opening near the scapula, allows males to inflate it with air into a balloon-like form that can extend over the throat and foreneck, reaching sizes large enough to obscure the head during displays.[70][71] The pouch features bright red coloration in breeding males, contrasting sharply with their black plumage, and its inflation is controlled seasonally by muscular action during the courtship period.[72][73] This aerial adaptation enables frigatebirds to perform mate-attraction displays while soaring over oceanic habitats, where the inflated pouch serves as a visual signal visible from afar in tropical and subtropical environments.[70] In contrast, among ground-dwelling ratites, cassowaries (Casuarius spp.) possess paired wattles—bright red or golden folds of loose throat skin hanging from the neck—that integrate with the casque and neck region for potential protective functions during aggressive interactions or territorial defense.[74][75] Males inflate the underlying throat area to produce low-frequency calls during courtship, enhancing the structure's role in communication and physical encounters in dense rainforest settings.[75] Variations in dewlap presence occur across avian groups, with such inflatable throat pouches evident in ratites like emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae), where a tracheal pouch in the throat inflates to generate deep booming sounds for long-distance signaling in open Australian landscapes.[76] These structures are largely absent in most passerines, the diverse songbird order, but persist in select non-passerine lineages, reflecting adaptive divergences in display and vocalization strategies.[77]

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