Hubbry Logo
Eastern Australian temperate forestsEastern Australian temperate forestsMain
Open search
Eastern Australian temperate forests
Community hub
Eastern Australian temperate forests
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Eastern Australian temperate forests
Eastern Australian temperate forests
Eastern Australian temperate forests
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Eastern Australian temperate forests
New England National Park, New South Wales
Ecoregion territory (in purple)
Ecology
BiomeTemperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Borders
Bird species380[1]
Mammal species87[1]
Geography
Area222,100 km2 (85,800 sq mi)
CountryAustralia
States
Conservation
Habitat loss32.821%[1]
Protected16.55%[1]

The Eastern Australian temperate forests, or the Eastern Australian temperate and subtropical forests,[2] is a broad ecoregion of open forest on uplands (typically on the Great Dividing Range) starting from the east coast of New South Wales in the South Coast to southern Queensland, Australia. Although dry sclerophyll and wet sclerophyll eucalyptus forests predominate within this ecoregion,[3][4] a number of distinguishable rainforest communities are present as well.[5][6]

Many systematic National and State Parks are distributed throughout New South Wales and Queensland, although the representation of habitats varies throughout the ecoregion. In some areas, eucalyptus woodlands and dry forests have been cleared for urban development or to enhance grazing. Before Europeans first arrived to Australia, the Border Ranges had one of the largest rainforests in Australia.[7]

Geography

[edit]

This ecoregion covers an area between Australia's east coast and the Great Dividing Range, starting just above Eden, New South Wales in the South Coast, which includes (parts of) the Blue Mountains to the west Sydney, and ending in south Queensland's Border Ranges.[8] The Sydney metropolitan area is transitional with regions such as the greater west (or the Cumberland Plain Woodland) being virtually excluded from this biome since it predominantly contains dry sclerophyll, grassy woodlands and thus the region's vegetation community will be more similar to Temperate grasslands (i.e. savannahs).[9][10] Though pockets of forested areas in Sydney, such as those in The Hills Shire to the north and Sutherland Shire to the south, which are relatively wet, do have regions within them that are part of Eastern Australian temperate forests (such as the Sydney Turpentine-Ironbark Forest and Blue Gum High Forest).[11][12][13]

Eucalyptus communities meandering the coast in southern Queensland and northern New South Wales are usually wet sclerophyll wet forests, ranging from 30 percent to 70 percent closed canopy cover, with the understorey containing small broadleaved trees, vines, ferns and shrubs. Both wet and dry sclerophyll forests are the most predominant vegetation communities in the coastal corridor of south-eastern Australia, and would receive less rainfall than the rainforest communities.

Subtropical rainforest are complex closed-forests that are the most developed community in New South Wales, growing in warm, fecund sites having rainfall higher than 1,300 mm per year. They are predominantly found between the border of Queensland and New South Wales, near the Gold Coast, Coffs Harbour and Byron Bay.[14][15][16]

Dry rainforests are low closed forests with irregular canopy that occur in sites with lower rainfall, ranging from 600 mm to 1,100 mm annual rainfall, generally in parts of the Blue Mountains and also near Narooma and Moruya in the south coast. Dry rainforest was distributed in southeastern Queensland where it occupied about half a million hectares, though it has now been broadly cleared for agriculture. There is a small dry rainforest community in southwestern Sydney, near Abbotsbury.[17][15][16] Western Vine Thickets, another dry closed forest biome is found inland of New South Wales near Moree and Narrabri.[18]

Warm temperate rainforest are closed forests with far less diversity than the dry or subtropical rainforests, growing on low-nutrient soils. It is found scattered in the Blue Mountains, Central Coast, North Coast, the Illawarra escarpment near Wollongong and in isolated pockets in the South Coast.[19][15][16] Cool temperate forests are found in the highlands in the northern areas of New South Wales.[20][15][16] The Blue Mountains and Southern Highlands Basalt Forests and the Illawarra-Shoalhaven subtropical rainforest are a prominent forest community within the ecoregion.[21]

The rainforest communities of this region exhibit ecological relations to other regions: the cool temperate rainforest is similar to the biome found in Tasmania, the warm temperate rainforest has links to the North Island of New Zealand, and the subtropical and dry regions are also found up north in the Queensland tropical rain forests ecoregion. The Blue Mountains area has over 90 eucalypt taxa, or 13% of the global dispersion.[22]

Biome groupings

[edit]

The ecoregion has a variety of vegetation communities in its scope:

  • Eucalyptus open forests (dry and wet sclerophyll forests)
    • Eucalyptus tall open forest
    • Eucalyptus open forest
    • Eucalyptus low open forest
    • Eucalyptus open grassy woodlands
  • Closed forests (rainforests and vine thickets)
    • Subtropical rainforest
    • Littoral rainforest
    • Dry rainforest
    • Warm temperate/deciduous rainforest (southern and northern group)
    • Cool temperate rainforest
    • Western Vine Thickets

To note, the open eucalypt forest is a broad, crescent-shaped vegetation community that is found from Gladstone, Queensland to as far as Quorn, South Australia in the southwest, which incorporates Southeast Australia temperate forests in southern Victoria and the Mediterranean woodlands in western Victoria and eastern South Australia.[23]

Climate

[edit]

These are areas of eucalyptus forest on sandstone plateau, with smaller sections of cliffs, steep gorges with rainforest vegetation and sandy heath on the coasts. The climate is oceanic to the south and humid subtropical to the north. In the central areas of the Blue Mountains, rainfall averages from 1,100 to 1,400 mm annually. Climate in the coastal regions is humid, with excessive rainfall (1200 mm to 1600 mm a year). Rainfall decreases as one moves inland to the New England region with Armidale receiving around 800 mm of rain each year on average. Winters in that city are cold and wet and higher elevations receive snowfall most years.[24]

Further north in the Border Ranges, monthly summer temperatures vary from 21.5C maximum to 19.7C minimum. Corresponding winter temperatures from Mount Tamborine in the Border Ranges vary from 17.8C maximum to 12.3C minimum. Throughout the ecoregion, rainfall is concentrated in the summer. Towards the north of the ecoregion rainfall is lower (750 mm to 1100 mm per year) and more seasonal.

Flora

[edit]
Brisbane Water National Park in the Central Coast near Gosford

The dominant forest is peppermint eucalyptus trees, indeed it was the moisture from these trees which was originally thought to cause the blue mist that gave the mountains their name. Shrublands, shrubby woodlands (heaths), and affiliated sandplain vegetation are typical of the region's coastal area. The shrub species include, Epacridaceae, Myrtaceae, Rutaceae, Fabaceae, Proteaceae, and Cyperaceae. The Border Ranges is home to more than 1,200 vascular plants.

A variety of eucalyptus trees dominate areas of this large ecoregion, including: in southern Queensland and northern New South Wales (such as in around such as the Northern Tablelands) - tallowwood (Eucalyptus microcorys), blackbutt (Eucalyptus pilularis), brush box (Lophostemon confertus), flooded gum (Eucalyptus grandis), and Gympie messmate (Eucalyptus cloeziana); southern New South Wales - Sydney blue gum (Eucalyptus saligna), the grey ironbark (Eucalyptus paniculata), and blackbutt; and on the New South Wales coast a stringybark (Eucalyptus eugenioides). Trees in the warm temperate forests include coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum), sassafras (Doryphora sassafras), and lillypilly (Acmena smithii) Typical trees in cool temperate forests include Eucryphia moorei and Antarctic beech (Nothofagus moorei).[25]

There are particularly rich collections of endemic plants in a number of areas: the eucalyptus of the Blue Mountains; the rainforests of Border Ranges area in the McPherson Range including Mount Warning, Nightcap National Park, and Lamington National Park including Binna Burra; and the sand dunes of World Heritage Site Fraser Island and the Great Sandy National Park of southern Queensland. There are well-known areas of rainforest protected as the Gondwana Rainforests of Australia, containing distinct areas of subtropical rainforest in New South Wales, dry rainforest of southern Queensland (although most of this has been cleared for agriculture and pine plantations) and warm temperate rainforest south of Sydney. Finally the coasts are covered with shrubs, heath and other sand dune vegetation.[26]

Fauna

[edit]

Local wildlife includes velvet worms and koalas, while the birds of the forest include kookaburra kingfishers, gang-gang cockatoos, crimson rosellas and striated thornbills and a number of threatened birds including red goshawk (Erythrotriorchis radiatus), swift parrot (Lathamus discolor), regent honeyeater (Xanthomyza phrygia), Albert's lyrebird (Menura alberti), and eastern bristlebird (Dasyornis brachypterus). Overall , upwards of 60 reptiles, 65 mammals, and 275 birds have been transcribed in the Blue Mountains. The broad-headed snake and the stuttering frog also exist in the region.[27]

List of national parks within the ecoregion

[edit]
A stream in Werrikimbe National Park in the Mid North Coast of NSW.
Misty Deua Forest in the South Coast NSW, near Batemans Bay.

These parks are listed in a north to south order, starting from northern NSW down to the south coast of NSW (to note, not all plant communities within these parks have temperate forests, as some would grade to Mediterranean woodlands and/or subtropical forests, depending on the vicinity):

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Eastern Australian temperate forests

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Eastern Australian temperate forests are a diverse spanning approximately 22 million hectares along the southeastern coast of , from through to the , encompassing coastal plains, escarpments of the , elevated plateaus, and inland riverine systems. This region features a subtropical to with annual rainfall ranging from 600 to 1,300 mm, supporting a mosaic of ecosystems including wet eucalypt forests, subtropical and cool temperate rainforests, dry woodlands, and grassy understorey communities. Characterized by Gondwanan species and high , these forests represent approximately 2.9% of 's land area but have lost about 45% of their original extent to historical clearing, making them a critical component of the Forests of East biodiversity hotspot designated in 2011. These forests are dominated by towering eucalypt species such as tallowwood (E. microcorys), blackbutt (E. pilularis), scribbly gum (E. haemastoma), and spotted gum (Corymbia maculata), alongside understoreys of grasses, shrubs, and ferns in open forests, or denser canopies with Antarctic beech (Nothofagus moorei) and cabbage palms (Livistona australis) in rainforests. Relictual conifers like the Wollemi pine (Wollemia nobilis), discovered in 1994, highlight their ancient evolutionary history dating back to Gondwanan times. The broader Forests of East Australia hotspot, of which this ecoregion is a key part, harbors over 8,200 vascular plant species (with more than 2,100 endemics) and over 1,100 vertebrate species (including 150+ endemics), particularly in amphibians (32% endemism). Notable fauna includes the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), superb lyrebird (Menura novaehollandiae), swift parrot (Lathamus discolor, critically endangered), regent honeyeater (Anthochaera phrygia, critically endangered), spot-tailed quoll (Dasyurus maculatus), and Richmond birdwing butterfly (Ornithoptera priamus richmondia), with keystone pollinators like the black flying-fox (Pteropus alecto). Over 320 threatened plant species and 33 threatened birds underscore the area's ecological significance, with 23 ecological communities listed as critically endangered, such as the Cumberland Plain Shale Woodlands and Shale-Gravel Transition Forest. Major threats to these forests include habitat fragmentation from agriculture and urban development, invasive species such as red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), feral cats (Felis catus), and weeds like blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), altered fire regimes exacerbated by climate change, and severe bushfires—as seen in the 2019–2020 events that burned over 107,000 km². Logging and diseases like chytridiomycosis in amphibians further compound pressures, contributing to extinctions such as the paradise parrot (Psephotus pulcherrimus). Conservation efforts focus on expanding the National Reserve System, which currently protects about 19% of the zone, including over 50 areas like Blue Mountains National Park and Border Ranges National Park. Initiatives include invasive species control, fire management through cultural burning programs, habitat restoration for threatened species, and addressing gaps in protected areas for endemic plant centers. Socio-economically, the region supports a population of over 5 million and generates $3 billion annually from agriculture, particularly beef production, while providing ecosystem services like water regulation and carbon sequestration.

Overview

Ecoregion Classification

The is designated by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) with the code AA0402 and is classified within the biome of the realm. This classification reflects its position as a transitional zone between subtropical and temperate zones, featuring open forests dominated by eucalypts on the eastern seaboard uplands. The ecoregion covers a total area of 222,100 km² (85,800 sq mi) and extends from southern through to the vicinity of , reaching inland to the . Habitat loss within the has been substantial due to historical clearing for , , and , with approximately 33% of the original extent converted or degraded as of the assessments. Currently, about 18% of the is protected (as of 2020), primarily through national parks, state forests, and World Heritage sites such as the Central Eastern Rainforest Reserves and the Greater Blue Mountains Area, though this falls short of comprehensive coverage for biodiversity conservation. The supports high , including over 5,000 native , contributing to its status as a critical/endangered . Vegetation is grouped into sub-biomes such as dry forests (open eucalypt woodlands in drier areas), wet forests (tall eucalypt forests with a dense in moister zones), and subtropical to temperate rainforests (closed-canopy formations in high-rainfall refugia). High characterizes hotspots like the Ranges, where over 70 are unique to the region.

Key Characteristics and Importance

The Eastern Australian temperate forests form a critical component of the Forests of East , recognized as the 35th global biodiversity hotspot by in 2011 due to its exceptional levels of and habitat loss exceeding 70%. This hosts over 2,144 endemic species, surpassing the threshold of 1,500 required for hotspot designation, and serves as a unique transitional zone where tropical, subtropical, and temperate climatic influences converge along a latitudinal gradient from southern to northern . These forests play a vital role in ecosystem services, particularly along the , where they contribute to by storing significant biomass in their eucalypt-dominated stands, supporting 's national carbon accounting efforts through protected and restored areas. They also regulate water flows by acting as catchments that sustain river systems and coastal aquifers, mitigating flood risks and maintaining hydrological balance in southeastern . Furthermore, as part of the Great Eastern Ranges corridor—a 3,600 km connectivity network—these forests facilitate species migration and genetic exchange, enabling adaptation to by linking habitats across elevational and latitudinal gradients. The significantly bolsters Australia's forest cover, encompassing diverse eucalypt formations that represent a key portion of the nation's 131.5 million hectares of native forests (as of 2021), with eucalypt types alone covering 101 million hectares or 77% of the total. The Greater Blue Mountains Area within the supports 92 eucalypt taxa, representing approximately 10% of Australia's ~900 eucalypt species and underscoring the 's disproportionate contribution to national botanical diversity, as the area contains about 10% of Australia's vascular . Approximately 18% of the falls under formal (as of 2020), highlighting its status in conservation frameworks. Beyond ecological functions, these forests hold substantial cultural and economic value, fostering through traditional practices that inform sustainable land management and biocultural conservation across southeastern . They underpin in iconic sites like the Greater Blue Mountains, drawing visitors for their scenic and -rich landscapes, while supporting timber industries via selective harvesting of native hardwoods that contribute to regional economies without compromising overall forest integrity. The 2023 Australia's State of the Forests Report emphasizes the ecoregion's role in native forest conservation, noting that eastern states like and host over 70 million hectares of native forests, with 37% nationally managed for protection to address ongoing threats.

Geography

Location and Extent

The Eastern Australian temperate forests spans the eastern seaboard of , primarily along the eastern flanks of the , encompassing coastal lowlands, tablelands, and montane zones. It covers southern , the entirety of , and the Australian Capital Territory. The ecoregion's northern boundary lies at the Border Ranges in southern , transitioning northward to the Queensland Tropical Rainforests ecoregion, while its southern limit reaches Eden in southeastern . Elevations range from along coastal areas to montane habitats up to over 2,000 meters. This ecoregion transitions to adjacent biomes, grading northward into the drier Brigalow Tropical Savanna ecoregion and southward into the Southeast Australia Temperate Forests. The total area of the ecoregion is approximately 296,020 square kilometers. Due to historical land clearing for and urban development, about 45% of the native has been lost, resulting in fragmented remnants concentrated in protected areas such as the Blue Mountains and K'gari (Fraser Island). Forest composition varies latitudinally across the ecoregion, influenced by decreasing temperatures southward; northern sections feature subtropical dry and wet forests, while southern areas support cooler temperate eucalypt-dominated woodlands and rainforests.

Topography and Geology

The Eastern Australian temperate forests is dominated by the , a complex system of mountain ranges, plateaus, upland areas, escarpments, and river valleys that parallels the eastern coastline from northern to southern and Victoria. This range forms the primary topographic backbone, with elevations ranging from coastal lowlands to peaks exceeding 2,000 meters, creating diverse landform gradients that influence local microclimates. Notable features include the sandstone-dominated plateaus and escarpments of the Blue Mountains in , where layered sandstones like the Hawkesbury and Narrabeen Groups, dating to approximately 240 million years ago, have been uplifted and dissected into steep cliffs and deep gorges. Geologically, the region traces its origins to ancient Gondwanan sediments and tectonic events, with bedrock primarily composed of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks formed 530–400 million years ago from ocean floor , , and continental collisions along eastern . Cainozoic uplift, beginning around 6–10 million years ago and continuing at a slow rate influenced by distant plate interactions, elevated these substrates into the modern , exposing diverse materials such as granites, basalts, and sandstones while promoting erosion that shaped river valleys and alluvial plains. The area exhibits tectonic stability overall, with minimal seismic activity, though it remains vulnerable to erosional processes driven by heavy rainfall, which carve gorges in national parks like those in the Blue Mountains and Border Ranges. Key landforms extend to coastal features, such as the massive parabolic dune systems on K'gari (Fraser Island) in , the world's largest sand island, formed from Pleistocene quartz sands transported by rivers and waves, with initial dune stabilization occurring in the mid-Pleistocene and major activation linked to sea-level changes around 800,000 years ago. Inland, volcanic substrates prevail in northern areas, including plateaus in the Macpherson and Nightcap Ranges of northern , contributing to fertile landforms that support wet forest pockets. Alluvial plains along river valleys, such as those of the Hunter and Clarence Rivers, provide broader, flatter terrains derived from erosional sediments. Soil variations across the reflect these geological foundations, ranging from nutrient-poor, sandy podzols and lithosols on and granitic substrates in sclerophyll-dominated plateaus and escarpments to deeper, more fertile red-brown loams and ferrosols developed on basaltic and volcanic materials in northern and highland areas. These types, often shallow on ridges and steeper slopes but richer in valleys, directly shape patterns by controlling availability and drainage, with sandy soils limiting growth in drier sclerophyll zones while loamy soils enable denser wet forests. The elevation gradient from to over 2,000 meters further modulates climatic zones within this topographic framework.

Climate

Climatic Variations

The Eastern Australian temperate forests spans a latitudinal gradient from to southern , resulting in distinct climatic variations classified primarily under the Köppen system as temperate oceanic (Cfb) in the south and humid subtropical (Cfa) in the north. The southern portions, such as the Blue Mountains in , exhibit a Cfb climate characterized by mild summers with average maximum temperatures around 25°C and cool winters with minima near 5°C, supporting cool temperate rainforests and eucalypt woodlands. In contrast, the northern sections, including the Border Ranges, align with Cfa conditions featuring hotter summers averaging 30°C maxima and milder winters with minima above 10°C, fostering warm temperate rainforests and drier forests. These transitions reflect influences of and , with higher altitudes moderating temperatures across the region. Annual rainfall exhibits a marked gradient, decreasing from coastal and montane areas to inland sites, driven by orographic effects from the . Coastal slopes and montane zones receive 1,200–1,600 mm annually, as seen in the Blue Mountains where Katoomba averages 1,410 mm, while inland areas like record around 800 mm. Higher elevations in the northern Border Ranges amplify this, with estimates exceeding 1,600 mm due to topographic uplift of moist easterly airflows. Temperature ranges follow a similar pattern, varying from 5–25°C annually in the south to 10–30°C in the north, with elevation providing a cooling effect of approximately 2°C per 300 m rise. Long-term climate averages, derived from records spanning over a century, indicate stable baselines with emerging warming trends noted in recent assessments. For instance, mean annual temperatures across the have increased by about 1.5°C since 1910, with 2023, which was 's equal eighth-warmest year on record at 0.98°C above the 1961–1990 baseline. In 2024, experienced its second-warmest year on record, with mean temperatures 1.46°C above the 1961–1990 baseline, continuing the warming trend. The 2023 Annual Statement highlights slight warming in southeastern temperate zones, contributing to drier conditions in inland areas and subtle shifts in rainfall distribution, though annual totals remain within historical variability. These trends underscore gradual changes without altering core climatic classifications yet.

Weather Patterns and Influences

The weather patterns in the Eastern Australian temperate forests exhibit distinct seasonal dynamics, with variations from north to south reflecting the 's latitudinal gradient. In the northern portions, near the subtropical transition, summers (December to ) bring a influenced by monsoonal flows from , delivering higher rainfall and that supports lush vegetation growth. Winters (June to August) in these areas are milder and drier, though still receiving some . Further south, the patterns shift to more temperate conditions, with relatively even rainfall distribution but drier winters prone to occasional frosts, which can limit growth and increase vulnerability to cold snaps. Average annual rainfall across the ecoregion varies from about 800 mm in southern areas to over 2,000 mm in the north, underscoring these spatial differences. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) profoundly influences these patterns, driving interannual variability in precipitation and extremes across eastern . During El Niño phases, suppressed rainfall leads to prolonged droughts, reducing and heightening risk in the forests. Conversely, La Niña events enhance moisture transport from the tropics, resulting in above-average rainfall and widespread flooding, as seen in the record wet conditions of that affected southeastern regions. These oscillations modulate the ecoregion's hydrological balance, with La Niña favoring wetter summers and El Niño exacerbating dry winters. Extreme weather events further shape the ecoregion's dynamics. Bushfires, fueled by hot, dry conditions, are a recurring threat, exemplified by the 2019–2020 megafires that burned approximately 21% of Australia's , including significant portions of this ecoregion and releasing substantial carbon emissions. In the northern fringes, tropical cyclones occasionally make landfall, causing high winds, heavy rains, and canopy disturbances in warm temperate rainforests, as documented in events impacting northeastern coastal areas. The (EAC), a poleward-flowing warm water stream, moderates coastal climates by elevating sea surface temperatures and contributing to elevated humidity levels, which amplify summer warmth and moisture along the ecoregion's eastern boundary. A 2024 heatwave, with temperatures exceeding 45°C in eastern , further intensified these patterns, heightening drought and fire risks in the ecoregion. Recent trends indicate intensifying weather extremes amid . Environmental reports from 2024 and 2025 highlight a ~10% increase in the intensity of heavy rainfall events since the 1950s, particularly in northern and eastern , leading to more severe storms and flash flooding. Concurrently, rising sea levels—accelerating at rates exceeding global averages in southeastern coastal zones—are encroaching on low-lying forest extents, exacerbating and in coastal temperate areas. These shifts, driven by warmer oceans and altered , are amplifying the frequency and severity of disturbances across the .

Biodiversity

Flora and Vegetation

The Eastern Australian temperate forests are characterized by diverse plant communities dominated by eucalypt forests, interspersed with various rainforest subtypes that reflect gradients in moisture and elevation. These forests support a total of 92 eucalyptus species, representing a significant portion of Australia's vascular flora. Dominant wet eucalypt forests feature tall trees such as Sydney blue gum (Eucalyptus saligna), blackbutt (E. pilularis), tallowwood (E. microcorys), and flooded gum (E. grandis), which form open to tall canopies in high-rainfall coastal and escarpment areas. Rainforest subtypes vary from subtropical to cool temperate and dry forms, each with distinct dominant species adapted to local conditions. Subtropical and warm temperate rainforests include coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum) and sassafras (Doryphora sassafras), often alongside booyongs (Argyrodendron spp.) and figs (Ficus spp.), in multi-layered canopies on fertile, sheltered slopes. Cool temperate rainforests are dominated by Antarctic beech (Nothofagus moorei), forming uniform stands with minimal understory diversity in high-altitude, misty environments. Dry rainforests, occurring in lower-rainfall pockets on fertile soils, feature emergents like hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) and a compact understory of prickly shrubs, lacking the buttressing and palms typical of wetter types. Endemic plant hotspots underscore the region's biodiversity, with the Border Ranges harboring over 70 endemic species among a total of 1,200 s. In the Blue Mountains, unique such as pinkwood (Eucryphia moorei) thrive in cool pockets on moist, acidic slopes. Vegetation structure transitions from open dry forests with sparse eucalypt canopies and grassy understories in drier inland areas to closed wet forests and dense s along the and ranges. Canopies in wet eucalypt and communities commonly reach heights of 30–50 m, with multi-layered profiles including emergent trees, sub-canopy shrubs, ferns, and epiphytes. Plant adaptations enable in this ecoregion's challenging conditions, including frequent fires and nutrient-poor soils. Eucalypts exhibit thick, fibrous bark that insulates epicormic buds, allowing resprouting after intense fires. Many species, including eucalypts, form mycorrhizal associations with fungi to enhance nutrient uptake, particularly , from infertile, weathered substrates prevalent across eastern .

Fauna and Wildlife

The Eastern Australian temperate forests support a rich assemblage of and , adapted to the ecoregion's eucalypt-dominated woodlands and rainforests. These habitats provide critical resources such as tree hollows, foliage, and understory cover, fostering high faunal diversity through arboreal lifestyles and ground-level foraging. Mammals, birds, reptiles, and play integral roles in dynamics, with many exhibiting Gondwanan origins that highlight the region's evolutionary significance. Mammalian diversity includes arboreal marsupials like the (Phascolarctos cinereus), which relies on eucalypt leaves for sustenance and is a in the ecoregion's coastal and upland forests. Gliders and possums, such as the (Petauroides volans) and eastern pygmy-possum (Cercartetus nanus), are prominent, utilizing gliding membranes to navigate the canopy. In the Blue Mountains subset, around 60 native mammal species occur, including the (Petaurus australis), which excavates bark for sap and insects. Avian fauna is equally diverse, with over 350 bird species recorded in subsets like the Great Sandy Region, encompassing a mix of forest specialists and migratory visitors. Iconic residents include the (Dacelo novaeguineae), a ground-foraging predator; the (Callocephalon fimbriatum), known for its crested silhouette in tall eucalypts; and the (Platycercus elegans), which feeds on seeds and fruits in the . Threatened species like the (Lathamus discolor) and red goshawk (Erythrotriorchis radiatus) utilize the forests for breeding and foraging, with the Blue Mountains alone hosting 251 native bird species. Reptiles number around 60 species in the Blue Mountains, including skinks and snakes adapted to rocky outcrops and leaf litter, while invertebrates feature ancient lineages such as velvet worms (), soft-bodied predators that spray adhesive to capture prey in moist forest floors and represent Gondwanan relics. Fauna fulfill key ecological roles, with birds like honeyeaters serving as pollinators for native shrubs and trees, possums acting as seed dispersers by consuming and transporting fruits through the canopy, and predators such as (Canis dingo) and regulating populations to maintain forest balance. In biodiversity hotspots like the , frog species total 44, representing about 18% of Australia's frog diversity, and specialized thrive, with relict frogs like those in the genus Philoria indicating pristine rainforest conditions.

Conservation and Threats

Protected Areas

The Eastern Australian temperate forests encompasses over 50 designated protected areas, covering approximately 18% of its total land area and prioritizing the conservation of ancient rainforest remnants alongside diverse eucalypt-dominated stands. These reserves play a critical role in safeguarding hotspots, including endemic plant species and wildlife corridors that span the from southern to central . Among the most significant is Blue Mountains National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage site spanning 2,477 km² of rugged sandstone plateaus, deep valleys, and temperate eucalypt forests interspersed with cool-climate rainforests. This park features iconic features like the Three Sisters rock formation and extensive hiking trails that highlight its geological and ecological diversity. Similarly, Border Ranges National Park, covering 319 km² along the Wales-Queensland border, protects subtropical rainforest transitions to temperate woodlands, hosting over 1,200 species, including more than 70 endemics. The Gondwana Rainforests of Australia World Heritage Area represents a serial listing of multiple protected sites totaling 3,665 km², encompassing ancient subtropical and temperate rainforest fragments that date back to the Gondwanan era. Key components include ancient Antarctic beech forests and basalt-capped plateaus, emphasizing the ecoregion's evolutionary history. Other notable reserves include Nightcap National Park (81 km²), renowned for its towering red cedars and fern gullies within the World Heritage area; Lamington National Park (206 km²), with over 160 km of trails through lush temperate rainforests and bird-rich canopies; K'gari (Fraser Island) National Park (1,840 km²), a UNESCO site featuring unique sand dune rainforests and coastal temperate woodlands; Werrikimbe National Park (333 km²), preserving high-elevation eucalypt forests and pristine wilderness rivers; Deua National Park (1,220 km²), characterized by karst landscapes, limestone caves, and mixed sclerophyll woodlands; and Brisbane Water National Park (115 km²), which safeguards coastal heathlands and eucalypt stands near urban interfaces. Management of these areas often involves joint indigenous co-management arrangements, with approximately 31% of ' national park estate, including portions of parks like Deua and Werrikimbe, overseen in partnership with Aboriginal traditional owners to integrate cultural knowledge into conservation practices. infrastructure, such as well-maintained walking tracks, visitor centers, and guided tours, supports sustainable access while minimizing environmental impacts across sites like and Blue Mountains. Following the severe 2019-2020 bushfires, has expanded protected areas, including additions to enhance connectivity and resilience in temperate eucalypt and habitats affected by the fires. These additions focus on restoring ecological linkages between existing reserves like Border Ranges and Nightcap, aiding post-fire recovery of fire-sensitive species.

Major Threats and Conservation Efforts

The Eastern Australian temperate forests face significant pressures from , with approximately 55% of the original habitat lost due to historical and ongoing changes. This fragmentation exacerbates vulnerability to and isolation of remnant patches, further compounded by urbanisation and agricultural expansion along coastal and inland fringes. Invasive species, including feral animals such as foxes and cats, as well as weeds like and , pose major threats by altering dynamics and competing with native flora. Additionally, from agricultural runoff introduces excess nutrients and sediments into waterways, degrading riparian zones and aquatic habitats within the . Climate change intensifies these challenges through more frequent and severe bushfires, as seen in the 2019–2020 events that burned millions of hectares of temperate forest and woodland across southeastern Australia. Droughts linked to El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycles have worsened water stress, leading to increased tree mortality and canopy dieback in eucalypt-dominated stands. Recent assessments indicate that these pressures contributed to 144 new species and ecological community listings as nationally threatened in 2023, and 42 in 2024. Conservation efforts are guided by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act 1999, which safeguards and ecological communities through regulatory approvals and recovery planning. The 2023 Australia's State of the Forests Report outlines initiatives for , including enhanced monitoring and of native forests to maintain ecological . Post-2019 bushfire restoration programs have invested over $110 million in on-ground actions, such as revegetation planting and rehabilitation in fire-affected areas. control programs, coordinated by state and federal agencies, target priority weeds and feral populations to reduce their spread in recovering ecosystems. Protected areas serve as critical buffers against these threats, supporting broader recovery strategies. Recent policy developments, including the Nature Repair Act 2023, enable biodiversity credits and further strengthen protections under ongoing EPBC reforms. Ongoing monitoring occurs through the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW) Conservation Management Zones, which classify the within broader frameworks to assess threats and guide interventions. Nationally, 1,227 native forest-dwelling were listed as threatened under the EPBC Act as of 2021, informing targeted conservation priorities. The Forest Futures 2025 plan advocates for retaining at least 55% uncleared vegetation to ensure long-term resilience, emphasizing transitions to sustainable practices like carbon credits and ending native logging in key areas.

Human Interactions

Indigenous History

The Eastern Australian temperate forests have been stewarded by Aboriginal peoples for tens of thousands of years, with traditional custodians including the Bundjalung and on the north coast of , the in the central and tablelands regions, and the along the south coast. These groups maintained deep connections to the eucalypt-dominated woodlands and rainforests, viewing the landscape as integral to their identity, law, and survival. Cultural practices centered on sustainable resource use and landscape management, particularly through controlled fire regimes known as , which created mosaic patterns to enhance and reduce intensity. For instance, and other groups applied low-intensity burns in temperate forests to promote grass growth for hunting, regenerate food plants, and maintain habitat diversity without causing widespread destruction. Harvesting was equally deliberate; eucalypts like blackbutt and were selectively used for tools, shields, canoes, and medicinal resins, with techniques such as bark stripping designed to allow trees to heal and regrow, ensuring long-term availability. These practices reflected a holistic knowledge system that balanced human needs with ecological health. The forests held profound spiritual significance, embodying Dreamtime narratives and serving as repositories of ancestral law. Sacred sites abound, such as rock shelters and engravings in the Blue Mountains, where Gundungurra and Darug stories recount creation events tied to the landscape's formation, including battles between ancestral beings that shaped valleys and cliffs. In areas like those in the Gondwana World Heritage region, sites linked to and lore highlight eucalypts as totemic beings in Dreamtime tales, symbolizing life cycles, healing, and connections to ancestors. Pre-colonially, these practices resulted in landscapes with minimal structural alteration, as and selective harvesting fostered resilient ecosystems rather than depletion, supporting diverse and central to Aboriginal sustenance. In recent decades, recognition of this has grown through co-management agreements that integrate Indigenous into park governance. On K'gari (Fraser Island), part of the broader subtropical-temperate transition zone, custodians collaborate with authorities via advisory committees and adaptation plans, incorporating traditional fire practices and cultural monitoring to protect the site's ecological and heritage values. This model exemplifies efforts to revive pre-colonial approaches for contemporary conservation.

European Settlement and Modern Impacts

European settlement in Australia began in 1788 with the establishment of a penal colony at Sydney, leading to rapid and extensive clearing of eastern temperate forests for agriculture, urban development, and timber extraction. By the early 20th century, over half of the original vegetation in the Sydney region, including significant portions of temperate forests, had been cleared primarily for farming and pastoral activities. This deforestation was driven by the need for arable land and building materials, transforming vast forested areas into agricultural landscapes and contributing to habitat fragmentation across New South Wales and Victoria. The 19th-century gold rushes further accelerated , as demand for timber in operations, , and fuelwood surged, particularly in central Victoria and where temperate forests were abundant. These rushes, beginning in the , prompted widespread that cleared large tracts of forest to support the influx of miners and development. In response to growing conservation awareness in the , efforts to protect remaining forests emerged, including the establishment of in 1959, which encompassed key temperate eucalypt woodlands and set a precedent for reserving public lands from exploitation. In modern times, urban expansion along Sydney's fringes has encroached on temperate forest edges, converting natural into residential and commercial zones and exacerbating like weed invasion and altered microclimates. Logging continues under Regional Forest Agreements (RFAs), 20-year bilateral plans between federal and state governments that balance conservation with sustainable timber harvesting in native forests, though critics argue they permit ongoing depletion in eastern regions. Tourism pressures, including trail erosion and visitor infrastructure in areas like the Blue Mountains, have added to stress, with high foot traffic impacting soil and vegetation in protected zones. The timber industry in eastern Australia has experienced a marked decline since the late 20th century, with native forest harvesting volumes dropping due to reduced demand, stricter regulations, and a pivot toward plantation-based and sustainable practices. This shift emphasizes certified sustainable to meet environmental standards, though it has led to job losses in regional communities reliant on traditional . A 2015 WWF report highlighted eastern as a global deforestation front, projecting 3-6 million hectares of forest loss by 2030 if trends continued, underscoring the region's vulnerability amid ongoing land-use pressures. Post-2000 reforestation policies, bolstered by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and carbon offset schemes, have promoted human-induced regeneration and revegetation projects in cleared eastern temperate areas to restore ecosystem services like . These initiatives, including community-led planting and incentives for private landholders, aim to reconnect fragmented habitats, yet challenges persist as historical clearing has left enduring fragmentation, with high rates of habitat loss noted in bioregions as of 2024.

References

  1. https://www.worldspecies.org/ecoregions/display/AA0402
  2. https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/eastern-australian-temperate-forests/
  3. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/env/resources/0e25a516-df10-45b4-8122-5f78a2a2b342/files/cmz-eastern-australia-temperate-subtropical-forests.pdf
  4. https://ecoxplore.org/ecoregions/eastern-australian-temperate-forests/
  5. https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/forests-east-australia
  6. https://documents.parliament.qld.gov.au/com/SDNRAIDC-9681/RN656PVMOL-A873/tp-12Apr2018Fensom.pdf
  7. https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/aa0402
  8. https://tsammalex.clld.org/ecoregions/AA0402
  9. https://hal.science/hal-03013123v1/file/41586_2020_2773_MOESM1_ESM.pdf
  10. https://theconversation.com/forests-of-eastern-australia-are-the-worlds-newest-biodiversity-hotspot-3935
  11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226642560_Forests_of_East_Australia_The_35th_Biodiversity_Hotspot
  12. https://ger.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Mackey-et-al-2010-Connectivity-Conservation-and-Great-Eastern-Ranges.pdf
  13. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00049182.2025.2551932
  14. https://conservationcorridor.org/ccsg/what-we-do/projects-and-activities/guidelines/case-studies/ger/
  15. https://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/Australia%27s%20State%20of%20the%20Forests%20Report%20Synthesis%202023.pdf
  16. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/forestry/eastern-australian-temperate-forests
  17. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/publications/cmz-eastern-australia-temperate-and-subtropical-forests
  18. https://research.library.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1187&context=environ_2015
  19. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3235659
  20. https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/landforms/australian-landforms-and-their-history
  21. https://www.oneearth.org/bioregions/east-australian-temperate-forests-mountain-shrublands-au3/
  22. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/51889/the-blue-mountains-australia
  23. https://australian.museum/learn/minerals/shaping-earth/the-sydney-basin/
  24. https://resources.vic.gov.au/projects/past-projects/eastern-victoria-geoscience-initiative/the-geology-of-eastern-victoria
  25. https://nre.tas.gov.au/Documents/FormationTas.pdf
  26. https://www.uwa.edu.au/news/article/2022/november/new-research-reveals-how-the-worlds-largest-sand-island-was-formed
  27. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/northern-rivers-appendix-9.pdf
  28. https://vicflora.rbg.vic.gov.au/pages/eastern-highlands
  29. https://learnline.cdu.edu.au/units/env509/module3/australian.html
  30. https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/forestsaustralia/australias-forests
  31. https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.14255
  32. https://en.climate-data.org/oceania/australia/blue-mountains-10227/
  33. https://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_035027.shtml
  34. https://www.bom.gov.au/climate/maps/averages/climate-classification/
  35. https://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_063039.shtml
  36. https://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_056002.shtml
  37. https://rainfall.willyweather.com.au/nsw/far-north-coast/border-ranges.html
  38. http://weatherarmidale.com/climate.htm
  39. https://www.csiro.au/en/research/environmental-impacts/climate-change/state-of-the-climate
  40. https://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/aus/2023/
  41. https://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/aus/2024/
  42. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/annual-climate-change-statement-2023.pdf
  43. https://www.csiro.au/en/research/environmental-impacts/climate-change/state-of-the-climate/australias-changing-climate
  44. https://www.foe.org.au/australia_black_summer
  45. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-tropical-ecology/article/immediate-impacts-of-a-severe-tropical-cyclone-on-the-microclimate-of-a-rainforest-canopy-in-northeast-australia/07EDD747ACA7B4222593898E8A81E6CA
  46. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-05-08/scientists-study-warming-east-australian-current/100124448
  47. https://www.bom.gov.au/climate/change/
  48. https://www.soe.epa.nsw.gov.au/all-themes/climate/extreme-climate-and-weather-2024
  49. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/mvg2-nvis-eucalypt-tall-open-forests.pdf
  50. https://www.bigvolcano.com.au/natural/rainforest-types.htm
  51. https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/forestsaustralia/australias-forests/profiles/rainforest-2019
  52. https://www.anbg.gov.au/gnp/gnp14/eucryphia-moorei.html
  53. https://theconversation.com/hard-to-kill-heres-why-eucalypts-are-survival-experts-222743
  54. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1020262317539
  55. https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/forestsaustralia/australias-forests/profiles/eucalypt-2019
  56. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/917/
  57. https://australian.museum/learn/animals/worms/velvet-worm/
  58. https://bmnature.info/fauna-head-count.shtml
  59. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2838264/
  60. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/02-0521
  61. http://world-heritage-datasheets.unep-wcmc.org/datasheet/output/site/gondwana-rainforests-of-australia
  62. https://wetlandinfo.des.qld.gov.au/wetlands/facts-maps/wildlife/?AreaID=world-heritage-area-gondwana-rainforests-of-australia&Kingdom=animals&Class=amphibians
  63. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/parks-heritage/heritage/places/world/blue-mountains
  64. https://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/visit-a-park/parks/border-ranges-national-park
  65. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/368/
  66. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/parks-heritage/heritage/places/world/kgari-fraser-island
  67. https://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/visit-a-park/parks/werrikimbe-national-park
  68. https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/parks-reserves-and-protected-areas/park-management/aboriginal-joint-management/developing-a-new-model-for-aboriginal-joint-management-of-national-parks
  69. https://theconversation.com/queenslands-forests-are-still-being-bulldozed-and-new-parks-alone-wont-save-them-267328
  70. https://parks.des.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/212524/qld-protected-area-strategy-2020-30.pdf
  71. https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/overview/environment/biodiversity
  72. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/abeb9e
  73. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016GL070572
  74. https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2025-01-21/what-made-it-onto-australias-threatened-species-list-2024/104830434
  75. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/bushfire-recovery/activities-and-outcomes/phase-2
  76. https://www.environment.vic.gov.au/invasive-plants-and-animals/managing-invasive-species-after-fire
  77. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protected/nature-repair
  78. https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/conservation-management-zones
  79. https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/forestsaustralia/sofr/criterion-1/indicator-1.2b
  80. https://www.forestfutures.org.au/our_forests_future
  81. https://wwf.org.au/blogs/10-culturally-significant-tree-species-impacted-by-logging-in-nsw/
  82. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016718521000233
  83. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12142454/
  84. https://www.anbg.gov.au/gardens/education/programs/pdfs/aboriginal_plant_use_and_technology.pdf
  85. https://www.visitnsw.com/articles/aboriginal-sites-in-nsw
  86. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/25148486251359505
  87. https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1998.00289.x
  88. https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/pre-colonial-australia-natural-wilderness-or-gentleman-s-park
  89. https://nesp2climate.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Kgari-Case-Study-2024_press.pdf
  90. https://environment.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0030/337917/kwhac-communique-june-2023.pdf
  91. https://www.botanicgardens.org.au/sites/default/files/2023-09/Volume-2%25283%2529-1991-Benson_1e343-370.pdf
  92. https://academic.oup.com/jpe/article/5/1/109/1294916
  93. https://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/SOFR_1998_Chapter_2_A_short_history_of_the_forests.pdf
  94. https://bmnature.info/np-blue-mountains.shtml
  95. https://www.climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/2021-06/Impacts%2520of%2520Landuse%2520Change%2520on%2520Sydneys%2520Future%2520Temperatures.pdf
  96. https://www.agriculture.gov.au/agriculture-land/forestry/policies/rfa
  97. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Catherine-Pickering/publication/281444557_Impacts_of_Tourism_on_Plants_in_Protected_Areas_in_Australia/links/55e7843108aeb6516262e40b/Impacts-of-Tourism-on-Plants-in-Protected-Areas-in-Australia.pdf
  98. https://www.ibisworld.com/australia/industry/forestry-and-logging/695/
  99. https://australiainstitute.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/TB-21-State-of-the-native-forest-industry_1_3.pdf
  100. https://wwf.org.au/news/2015/eastern-australia-listed-as-global-front-for-deforestation/
  101. https://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/ChangingfaceofAustraliasforests_20080404_v1.0.0.pdf
  102. https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01313-x
  103. https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/nsw-biodiversity-outlook-report-2024-240126.pdf
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.