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First-generation programming language
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A first-generation programming language (1GL) is a machine-level programming language and belongs to the low-level programming languages.[1]
The first-generation programming languages (1GL) are a grouping of programming languages that are machine-level languages used to program first-generation computers. Originally, no translator was used to compile or assemble a first-generation language. The first-generation programming instructions were entered through the front panel switches of the computer system.
The instructions in a 1GL are made of binary numbers, represented by 1s and 0s. This makes the language suitable for the understanding of the machine but far more difficult to interpret and learn by the human programmer.
The main advantage of programming in 1GL is that the code can run very fast and very efficiently, precisely because the instructions are executed directly by the central processing unit (CPU). One of the main disadvantages of programming in a low-level language is that, when an error occurs, the code is not as easy to fix.
First-generation languages are very much adapted to a specific computer and CPU, and code portability is therefore significantly reduced in comparison to higher-level languages.
Modern-day programmers still occasionally use machine-level code, especially when programming lower-level functions of the system, such as drivers, interfaces with firmware, and hardware devices. Modern tools such as native-code compilers are used to produce machine-level code from a higher-level language.
References
[edit]General
[edit]1. Nwankwogu S.E (2016). Programming Languages and their history.
First-generation programming language
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Overview
Definition
A first-generation programming language (1GL), commonly referred to as machine code or machine language, comprises sequences of binary digits—0s and 1s—that directly correspond to the hardware instructions executable by a computer's central processing unit (CPU) without requiring compilation, interpretation, or any intermediary translation. These binary codes encode the processor's native operations, forming the lowest level of programming abstraction tied intrinsically to the specific architecture of the machine.[4] In 1GL, there is no use of symbolic or human-readable representations; programmers must supply the raw binary instructions, often by manually setting physical switches or plugs on the computer's front panel or entering them via binary-compatible media like punched cards or tape. This direct hardware manipulation made programming extremely error-prone and time-consuming, as even minor alterations required recalculating and re-entering entire binary sequences.[5][6] The classification of programming languages into generations, positioning 1GL as the hardware-bound category for machine code, was standardized in the latter half of the 20th century, following the emergence of terms for higher-level languages in the 1950s and 1960s. For instance, a simple operation like moving data to a register might be represented by a binary opcode such as 10110000, followed by operand bits specifying the data source. In contrast to second-generation assembly languages that employ mnemonic symbols for these operations, 1GL demands precise binary encoding from the outset.[7]Historical Significance
First-generation programming languages, consisting of machine code in binary form, played a pivotal role in realizing theoretical concepts of computability by enabling the physical execution of algorithms theorized by Alan Turing and John von Neumann. Turing's 1936 paper introduced the universal Turing machine, a theoretical model demonstrating that any computable function could be performed by a single machine through a sequence of instructions, which machine code directly implemented on early electronic hardware. Von Neumann's 1945 EDVAC report further elaborated this by proposing a stored-program architecture where binary instructions could be modified during execution, bridging abstract theory to practical computation and establishing the foundation for general-purpose computing.[8][9] These languages facilitated groundbreaking applications in scientific fields, particularly during World War II, where they powered calculations essential for military efforts. For instance, the ENIAC computer, operational in 1945, used machine code equivalents via switch and wiring configurations to compute artillery ballistics tables, reducing computation times from days to seconds and supporting Allied operations. This practical utility not only accelerated wartime innovations but also highlighted the limitations of physical reconfiguration, motivating the stored-program concept proposed in von Neumann's report, which enabled programs to be dynamically altered and reused as a cornerstone of subsequent computer designs.[10][9] By the 1940s and 1950s, first-generation languages were indispensable for all computational tasks, as no higher-level abstractions existed, directly shaping the design of computer architectures through the definition of instruction sets tailored to binary operations. Their necessity drove innovations in hardware efficiency and reliability, ensuring that early computers like ENIAC and its successors could handle complex numerical problems reliably.[1] The advent of first-generation languages marked a critical shift from electromechanical devices, such as relay-based calculators, to electronic computing in the 1940s, where binary code emerged as the universal medium for encoding instructions across diverse machines. This transition, exemplified by vacuum-tube systems like the Colossus in 1944, standardized computation by replacing mechanical variability with reliable electronic binary signaling, enabling scalable and programmable digital processing.History
Origins in Early Computing
The theoretical roots of first-generation programming languages, also known as machine code, lie in binary representation derived from George Boole's Boolean algebra, introduced in his 1854 book An Investigation of the Laws of Thought, which formalized logic using binary values of true and false as the foundation for digital operations.[11] This algebraic system enabled the manipulation of binary digits (0s and 1s) essential for encoding instructions in early computers. Complementing Boole's work, Alan Turing's 1936 paper "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem" proposed the universal Turing machine, a theoretical device that could execute any algorithm through a finite set of binary states and symbols, establishing the conceptual framework for programmable computation.[8] However, these ideas remained abstract until the practical demands of electronic digital computers brought binary machine code into existence in the late 1940s. The inception of first-generation languages occurred following World War II, building on wartime innovations in electronic computation. A pivotal development was the Colossus, designed by engineer Tommy Flowers and operational from late 1943 to 1944 at Bletchley Park, which served as an early programmable electronic computer for cryptanalysis of German Lorenz ciphers.[12] Programming Colossus involved manual configuration via plugboards, switches, and punched paper tape to set patterns for Boolean operations and data routing. This hardware-based approach marked an early shift from mechanical to electronic binary logic handling but did not involve stored binary instructions.[12] The stored-program concept, outlined in John von Neumann's 1945 EDVAC report, enabled computers to hold both data and binary instructions in memory, allowing true machine code programming. The first implementation was the Manchester Baby (Small-Scale Experimental Machine), which ran its initial program in binary machine code on June 21, 1948, at the University of Manchester. This was followed by the EDSAC in 1949 at the University of Cambridge, which used binary instructions loaded from paper tape. These advancements laid the essential groundwork for machine code in broader computing developments. The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), completed in 1945 as the first general-purpose electronic digital computer, designed by physicists John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering under U.S. Army contract, served as a precursor.[13] ENIAC could be reconfigured for diverse calculations, such as ballistics trajectories, but programming required physical rewiring of patch panels with cables and adjustment of over 3,000 switches to define logic paths and data flows, often taking days for reconfiguration between tasks.[14] In ENIAC's architecture, programming equated to direct hardware reconfiguration, predating the stored-program model that defined machine code.Adoption in Post-WWII Computers
The adoption of first-generation programming languages, characterized by direct binary machine code, accelerated significantly in the post-World War II era as commercial computers emerged to meet growing demands in business, science, and military sectors. A pivotal milestone was the delivery of the UNIVAC I in 1951, the first general-purpose commercial computer, which used binary machine code stored in its mercury delay-line memory. Programs were prepared offline in binary format on punched paper tape using devices like the Unityper, then loaded into the system via UNISERVO tape drives at speeds up to 128 characters per second, with the operator console used for supervisory control rather than direct code entry.[15] By the early 1950s, this approach extended to other influential systems, such as the IBM 701 introduced in 1952, which was designed for scientific and military applications like defense calculations and engineering simulations. Programmers for the IBM 701 worked with 18-bit binary instructions, featuring a 5-bit opcode field and a 12-bit address field, often memorizing common opcodes—such as 11110 for the SENSE instruction—to streamline the entry of code via the front panel's switches and lights or punched cards.[16][17] These machines underscored the scalability of 1GL in post-war computing, enabling complex computations but demanding deep familiarity with hardware-specific binary formats. To mitigate the tedium of manual entry, the 1950s saw punched cards and magnetic tape as standard media for binary input, allowing programs to be prepared offline and loaded mechanically while remaining in pure machine code. For instance, UNIVAC I programs were encoded in binary on punched paper tape, reducing errors and setup time compared to manual methods. Similarly, the IBM 701 supported binary-loaded punched cards, with each card holding 24 words of machine code, facilitating batch processing for larger applications without altering the underlying 1GL nature. This innovation marked a key standardization in 1GL adoption, bridging manual programming with more efficient input mechanisms across commercial installations.[15][16] Although 1GL dominated post-WWII computing through the early 1960s, its exclusive use began to decline by the mid-1960s as second-generation assembly languages gained traction for their symbolic representations of binary opcodes, easing programmer burden in expanding software ecosystems. However, machine code persisted in critical roles, such as bootstrapping operating systems and low-level hardware initialization, where direct binary control remained essential even as higher abstractions proliferated.[18]Technical Characteristics
Binary Instruction Format
In first-generation programming languages, also known as machine code, instructions are encoded directly as binary patterns tailored to the specific hardware architecture of the computer. Each instruction typically consists of an opcode, which specifies the operation to be performed, followed by one or more operands that provide the necessary data or addresses. The opcode usually occupies a small fixed number of bits, commonly 4 to 8 bits, allowing for a limited set of basic operations such as arithmetic, data transfer, or control flow. The remaining bits in the instruction are allocated to operands, which may include memory addresses, register identifiers, or immediate values.[19] These instructions are structured within fixed-width words, determined by the computer's word size, which served as the fundamental unit for both data and instructions. For example, the EDSAC computer from 1949 used 17-bit words, where each instruction consisted of bits 0-4 (5 bits) for the opcode, bits 5-14 (10 bits) for the operand address enabling direct access to up to 1,024 memory locations, a length bit, and a spare bit. This fixed-width design ensured that the processor could fetch and decode instructions uniformly, as the entire program was simply a linear sequence of such binary words stored in memory. Similar formats appeared in other early machines, emphasizing simplicity and direct hardware compatibility over flexibility.[20] A key characteristic of this binary format is the absence of variables or symbolic labels; all addressing is absolute, meaning operands directly reference fixed memory locations hardcoded into the instruction. This absolute addressing scheme, while efficient for execution, introduced significant relocation challenges, as moving a program to a different memory starting point required manual modification of every affected address throughout the code. To illustrate a simplified structure, consider a hypothetical 8-bit instruction: bits 0-3 could encode the opcode (e.g., 0001 for an ADD operation), while bits 4-7 specify a single register operand or a small immediate value, reflecting the constrained bit budgets of early systems. This format directly maps to hardware execution without abstraction layers.[21]Direct Hardware Interaction
First-generation programming languages, consisting of binary machine code, interact directly with computer hardware through a fundamental execution process known as the fetch-decode-execute cycle in von Neumann architectures. The central processing unit (CPU) begins by fetching the next binary instruction from main memory using the address stored in the program counter register. It then decodes the opcode within the instruction to determine the operation, such as arithmetic or data movement, and executes it by manipulating data in registers or the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), all without any intermediary compiler, interpreter, or operating system abstraction layer. This cycle repeats continuously, enabling the hardware to process the program sequentially.[22][23] Machine code's direct hardware interaction renders it inherently platform-specific, as instructions are tailored to a particular CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA), making code non-portable across different machines without complete rewriting. For instance, binary programs designed for von Neumann-style processors, which store both instructions and data in the same memory, cannot run on non-von Neumann systems or even differing ISAs within the same family without adaptation. This dependency extends to low-level hardware details, such as precise timing synchronized to clock cycles for operations like memory access and the manual encoding of interrupt handling routines in binary to respond to hardware events like input/output signals.[24][25] Input for first-generation programs occurred through rudimentary methods that loaded binary code directly into specific memory addresses, bypassing any higher-level input abstraction. Early stored-program computers like the Manchester Baby (1948) required operators to enter machine code bit by bit using toggle switches on the control panel, setting each binary digit manually for instructions and data. Later systems, such as the EDSAC (1949), employed punched paper tape as input, where binary instructions were encoded as patterns of holes read photoelectrically and transferred sequentially into memory to initiate execution. These methods ensured immediate hardware access but demanded meticulous preparation to avoid loading errors.[26][27]Examples and Usage
Machine Code on Vacuum Tube Machines
The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), completed in 1945, exemplified first-generation programming on vacuum tube-based machines through its reliance on physical reconfiguration to encode binary instructions for arithmetic operations. Programming was achieved primarily via plugboards and function tables, where operators connected cables on large plugboards—up to 40 panels, each several feet in size—to route signals between the machine's 18,000 vacuum tubes, thereby setting the binary states that defined computational pathways for addition, multiplication, and other operations.[28] Three portable function tables, each equipped with 1,200 ten-way switches, allowed entry of numerical constants and program tables in decimal form, which the hardware converted to underlying binary representations for execution.[28] Programs were entered as sequences of switch settings and cable connections across the system's approximately 6,000 manual switches, a process that demanded meticulous planning on paper before physical implementation and verification, often taking several days per reconfiguration due to the complexity of tracing thousands of wires.[29][28] This labor-intensive setup was necessitated by the vacuum tubes' operational limits, which operated at speeds of around 5,000 additions per second (equivalent to roughly 5 kHz), precluding any higher-level input methods and requiring direct hardware-level binary encoding to achieve feasible computation times.[30] A key application was ballistic calculations for artillery trajectories, where ENIAC's binary-configured accumulators and units simulated shell paths by performing iterative arithmetic without software loops; instead, repetitions were manually specified through the master programmer unit's stepping switches, enabling solutions in about 20 seconds that previously required hours of human computation.[28][14] This approach highlighted the direct tie to binary instruction formats, as plugboard wirings effectively hardcoded the machine's control flow in a fixed, non-reprogrammable sequence for each problem.[29]Illustrative Instruction Sets
To illustrate the nature of first-generation programming languages, representative machine code examples from mid-20th-century computer architectures demonstrate the binary format and direct hardware encoding typical of 1GL. These snippets highlight the absence of symbolic representations, requiring programmers to manipulate raw binary sequences for even basic operations. Actual instruction sets varied significantly across machines, such as the 36-bit words of the IBM 704 (introduced in 1954), which often included specialized formats for floating-point operations.[31] The IBM 704 employed 36-bit words with an instruction format including an 18-bit operation code field, 3-bit tag for indexing, and 15-bit address. Basic operations like loading used the CLA (Clear and Add) instruction with octal code 050000 (binary 00000000010100000000000000000000 for CLA at address 0, clearing the accumulator and adding memory contents). Addition via ADD has octal 040000 (binary 00000000010000000000000000000000), adding the addressed value to the accumulator. Storing with STO uses octal 060000 (binary 00000000011000000000000000000000).[32][31] A representative addition snippet for the IBM 704, assuming values at addresses 198 and 199 (octal), loads and adds them before storing at 200:0500307 ; CLA 199 (octal; load y into AC)
0400306 ; ADD 198 (add x to AC)
0600310 ; STO 200 (store sum)
0500307 ; CLA 199 (octal; load y into AC)
0400306 ; ADD 198 (add x to AC)
0600310 ; STO 200 (store sum)