Hubbry Logo
Forest steppeForest steppeMain
Open search
Forest steppe
Community hub
Forest steppe
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Forest steppe
Forest steppe
Forest steppe
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
The East European forest steppe (ecoregion PA0419)
Forest steppe landscape on the Volga Upland near the city of Saratov, Russia
Devín forest steppe in Slovakia

A forest steppe is a temperate-climate ecotone and habitat type composed of grassland interspersed with areas of woodland or forest.

Locations

[edit]

Forest steppe primarily occurs in a belt of forest steppes across northern Eurasia from the eastern lowlands of Europe to eastern Siberia in northeast Asia. It forms transition ecoregions between the temperate grasslands and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biomes. Much of Russia belongs to the forest steppe zone, stretches from Central Russia, across Volga, Ural, Siberian and Far East Russia.[1][2][3][4]

In upper North America another example of the forest steppe ecotone is the aspen parkland in the central Prairie Provinces, northeastern British Columbia, North Dakota, and Minnesota. It is the transition ecoregion from the Great Plains prairie and steppe temperate grasslands in the south to the Taiga biome forests in the north.

In central Asia the forest steppe ecotone is found in ecoregions in the mountains of the Iranian Plateau, in Iran, Afghanistan, and Balochistan.

Forest steppe ecoregions

[edit]
[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Forest steppe

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The forest steppe, also known as forest-steppe, is a temperate-climate characterized by a landscape-scale of herbaceous grasslands and woody habitats, typically featuring 10–70% arboreal cover that transitions between closed-canopy and open steppes. This represents a dynamic boundary zone where structure shifts abruptly due to environmental gradients, resulting in a heterogeneous patchwork of forest patches, meadows, and grasslands. Spanning a vast expanse across the , the forest steppe forms an approximately 9,000 km long and 400 km wide belt, extending from the Carpathian Basin in eastern through the , , , the , , and into the Russian Far East's Amur Lowland. In , its westernmost limit occurs in regions like , the , , and , often confined to hilly or south-facing slopes that enhance its distinctiveness. The covers roughly 3.45 million square kilometers globally, though much of this area has been converted to for , leaving only a small fraction under legal protection. Climatically, forest steppes occupy temperate zones with marked east-west gradients in , annual mean temperatures, and seasonal , typically receiving 420–600 mm of annual rainfall and experiencing mean temperatures of 8.25–13.5°C, with dry winters and variable summer patterns. These conditions, influenced by continentality and topographic factors, limit widespread forest expansion while promoting grassland persistence through mechanisms like , , and soil exposure. Vegetation in this blends elements of both forest and steppe communities, including continental woodlands (e.g., Quercus species) interspersed with drought-tolerant grasses such as Festuca and Stipa spp., geophytes, and sub-Mediterranean shrubs in southern extents, fostering high plant diversity and supporting endemic or endangered taxa. Ecologically, forest steppes are notable for their elevated biodiversity and role as transitional habitats that provide essential ecosystem services, including soil stabilization, water regulation, and habitats for wildlife adapted to mosaic landscapes. Many relict patches trace back to late Pleistocene conditions, highlighting their conservation value under frameworks like the EU's Natura 2000 network, where they harbor unique assemblages shaped by historical disturbances and ongoing climate pressures. Despite their ecological importance, these zones face threats from agricultural expansion and climate change, which could alter their delicate balance between woody and herbaceous dominance.

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

The forest steppe, also known as forest-steppe, is a transitional in temperate zones characterized by a landscape-scale of patches and open grasslands, with arboreal cover typically ranging from 10% to 70%. This forms a distinct zone between closed-canopy temperate s and treeless steppes, where woody and herbaceous habitats coexist due to the interplay of environmental constraints that prevent full dominance by either vegetation type. While most extensive in , similar transitional zones occur elsewhere in the . The term "forest steppe" originates from Eurasian ecological nomenclature, particularly the Russian "lesostep'" (лесостепь), which describes the alternation of forest and steppe elements, and entered scientific literature in the amid explorations of zonal vegetation patterns. Early descriptions of such transitional zones were provided by naturalist , who, during his travels in and observations of latitudinal and altitudinal gradients, noted the gradual shifts from forested regions to open s influenced by climate variations. Humboldt's works, such as Aspects of Nature (), highlighted these mosaics as part of broader vegetation belts, laying foundational principles for understanding transitions. Key ecological principles governing forest steppe formation involve climatic and edaphic factors that create patchy s rather than uniform landscapes. Climatically, gradients in —often decreasing southward or with increasing —limit establishment in open areas while allowing patches in moister microhabitats, resulting in zonation patterns; for instance, mean annual around 500–600 mm supports this balance in many regions. Edaphically, shallow, nutrient-poor soils on slopes or sandy substrates further restrict expansion, promoting dominance in drier patches and reinforcing the structure through differential retention and availability.

Physical Characteristics

The forest steppe is characterized by a distinctive , featuring island-like groves of trees interspersed within expansive grasslands. These forest patches, often forming isolated or clustered stands, contribute to the overall arboreal cover of 10–70% in the of representative Eurasian regions, creating a heterogeneous pattern that reflects the interplay of environmental factors. This structure arises as a transitional zone between denser and open steppes, with tree groves acting as refugia amid the dominant grassy expanses. Topographically, forest steppes occupy gently undulating plains and broad river valleys that facilitate localized tree establishment by providing microhabitats with reduced exposure. In Eurasian examples, such as those in and , these landscapes occur at a wide range of elevations, from near in lowlands to over 3,000 m in mountainous areas, such as in , where subtle slopes and valley floors influence vegetation distribution. River valleys, in particular, serve as corridors that favor tree growth due to their sheltered positions and access to moisture, contrasting with the more exposed interfluve areas dominated by grasslands. Hydrologically, forest steppes feature seasonal streams and scattered wetlands that sustain the island-like forest groves by maintaining in otherwise drier settings. These elements create patchy drainage patterns, with depressions and low-lying areas acting as recharge zones that support clusters, particularly along bottoms.

Climate and Environment

Climate

The forest steppe biome is characterized by a continental temperate climate, often classified under Köppen types Dfb or Dwb, featuring distinct seasonal contrasts that support a of woodlands and grasslands. This climate regime arises from its mid-latitude position, influenced by both polar and subtropical air masses, resulting in moderate levels that prevent full forest dominance while allowing steppe elements. Annual precipitation typically ranges from 420 to 600 mm, with the majority concentrated in the summer months due to convective storms and cyclonic activity. In Eurasian examples, such as the Central European and Russian zones, this summer peak—often exceeding 50% of the total—provides sufficient moisture for grass growth but is insufficient for dense tree cover across the landscape. Mean annual temperatures fall between 8 and 12°C, with regional variations; for instance, in the , averages range from about 6°C in northern areas to 11°C in central parts, reflecting continental influences. Winters are cold, with mean temperatures of -10°C to -20°C in January, driven by Siberian anticyclones, while summers are warm, reaching 20-25°C in July, fostering rapid vegetation cycles. Seasonal variability is pronounced, with high interannual fluctuations in and that create periodic stresses. periods, such as the severe 2010 summer event in the Russian forest steppe, restrict forest expansion by limiting recharge. Frost events are common in late spring or early autumn, further constraining woody establishment in open areas. These extremes maintain the biome's patchy structure, as prolonged dry spells and sudden frosts inhibit survival beyond margins.

Soils

The forest steppe is characterized by dominant soil orders such as chernozems (black earth) and kastanozems, which exhibit high due to their development under mixed and . These soils typically feature a with elevated content ranging from 3% to 5%, primarily resulting from the of grass roots and litter, which contributes to their dark coloration and nutrient richness. Soil profiles in the forest steppe display distinct characteristics, including a thick A-horizon (mollic horizon) that often extends 30 to 60 cm in depth, providing substantial depth for root penetration and water retention. The in these profiles generally ranges from 6 to 7.5, reflecting neutral to slightly alkaline conditions influenced by the alternating inputs of organic acids from forest litter and base-rich materials from decomposition. Pedogenic processes in forest steppe soils are driven by semi-arid conditions, where humification—the transformation of plant residues into stable —builds organic layers, while leads to the accumulation of calcium carbonates in deeper horizons, enhancing but limiting nutrient mobility in drier areas. Spatial variability is pronounced, with soils under canopies often showing higher fertility, increased accumulation, and improved moisture retention compared to open patches, due to localized shading and litterfall effects.

Distribution and Geography

Global Locations

The forest steppe predominantly occurs in , forming an extensive transitional zone between temperate deciduous forests to the north and arid steppes to the south. This zone spans approximately 3.45 million km², manifesting as a 9,000 km-long belt with an average width of 400 km, extending from the Carpathian Basin in eastern (around 48°N, 20°E) eastward to the Amur River basin in the (around 50°N, 130°E). Within this vast expanse, key examples include the Hungarian in , where forest-steppe mosaics characterize much of the region's approximately 100,000 km² lowland area, blending open grasslands with scattered woodlands. Further east, the Mongolian forest-steppe, integrated into the broader Daurian steppe ecosystem, covers over 1 million km² across northern , southeastern , and northeastern , featuring larch-dominated woodlands interspersed with grasslands between roughly 47°N–52°N and 105°E–120°E. Secondary distributions appear in , primarily as the within the Canadian prairies. This area, analogous to Eurasian forest steppes in its mosaic of trembling aspen groves and grasslands, lies across , , and , bounded approximately by 50°N–54°N and 100°W–115°W. In , forest steppe-like transitions are limited to fragmented patches along the northern and western edges of the , where semi-arid woodlands grade into grasslands; notable among these is the Espinal in central , spanning roughly 300,000 km² from southward to northern (around 30°S–37°S, 60°W–65°W), with thorny shrubs and deciduous trees forming a steppe-forest interface. Historically, forest steppe extents were more contiguous, supporting broader ecological connectivity across these regions prior to widespread human modification. Today, , , and intensive have led to significant fragmentation, reducing intact areas and isolating remnants into smaller patches, particularly in the densely populated Eurasian belt and North American prairies.

Ecoregions

The forest steppe biome is delineated into distinct primarily through the World Wildlife Fund's (WWF) terrestrial ecoregion classification system, which identifies units based on biotic communities, geography, and ecological processes to guide conservation priorities. These ecoregions represent transitional zones where forest cover intermingles with , exhibiting variations in structure, influences, and assemblages influenced by latitude and topography. Key examples include the , Kazakh forest steppe, Altai montane forest and forest steppe, and Selenge-Orkhon forest steppe, each showcasing unique adaptations to continental s and serving as hotspots with moderate to high . The (WWF ID: PA0419), often associated with the Pontic-Caspian region, spans approximately 728,840 km² across , , , , and , forming a of broadleaf forests and under a . This features oak-dominated woodlands interspersed with feather grasses and supports species like the and , a near-endemic , reflecting moderate driven by historical glacial refugia. It transitions northward to denser temperate broadleaf forests and southward to arid Pontic steppes, with boundaries marked by decreasing tree cover and increasing grassland dominance due to precipitation gradients. Its is rated as critical/endangered by WWF criteria, owing to extensive agricultural conversion covering over 40% of the area. In contrast, the Kazakh forest steppe (WWF ID: PA0809) covers about 422,000 km² in a narrow band along northern and , acting as a transitional strip between Siberian forests to the north and the vast to the south. Characterized by and groves amid feather grass prairies, it hosts and steppe eagles, with levels elevated by isolation in upland pockets, including rare vascular plants adapted to semi-arid conditions. Boundaries with adjacent biomes are abrupt, shifting from coniferous via edaphic changes to desert southward where aridity exceeds 300 mm annual rainfall. WWF assesses this as vulnerable, with approximately 12% protected amid threats from . The Altai montane forest and forest steppe (WWF ID: PA0615) encompasses roughly 142,770 km² across the Altai Mountains in Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and China, where elevation creates altitudinal zonation from larch-spruce forests at lower slopes to cold steppe meadows above 2,000 m. Unique features include diverse microhabitats supporting Pallas's cat and snow leopards, with high plant endemism (over 20% for north Asian montane species) due to topographic barriers fostering speciation. It borders taiga woodlands to the northwest and Gobi desert steppes to the south, with transitions defined by snowmelt patterns and aspect-driven vegetation shifts—north-facing slopes retaining forests while south-facing ones favor steppes. Conservation status is vulnerable per WWF, with a protection level of 5/10, emphasizing the need to safeguard against logging and pastoralism. East Asian variants, such as the Selenge-Orkhon forest steppe (WWF ID: PA0816), extend over 228,160 km² in northern and , blending Siberian forests with dry steppes along river basins like the Selenge. This is distinguished by floodplain meadows hosting migratory birds like the and the endangered Mongolian , an endemic , highlighting regional in a landscape shaped by seasonal flooding. Transitions occur eastward to denser and westward to steppes, with boundaries influenced by the Mongolian Plateau's effects reducing forest density southward. WWF classifies it as relatively intact but vulnerable, with just 1/10 protection amid pressures.
EcoregionArea (km²)Primary CountriesWWF Conservation StatusKey Transition Biomes
728,840Ukraine, , Moldova, , Critical/EndangeredTemperate broadleaf forests (N), Pontic steppe (S)
Kazakh forest steppe422,000, Vulnerable (N), (S)
Altai montane forest and forest steppe142,770, , , ChinaVulnerable (NW), steppe (S)
Selenge-Orkhon forest steppe228,160, Vulnerable (E), Desert steppe (W)

Ecology

Flora

The flora of forest steppe ecosystems is characterized by a mosaic of and elements, reflecting the transitional nature between closed forests and open steppes. The components dominate open areas, primarily consisting of perennial bunchgrasses from genera such as (e.g., F. sulcata, F. vaginata), Stipa (e.g., S. capillata, S. borysthenica), and (e.g., P. botryoides, P. angustifolia), which form dense tussock or bunch formations that often cover the majority of exposed ground in these habitats. Forest elements are interspersed as groves or patches, featuring deciduous trees like (pedunculate oak) and (European hornbeam), alongside species such as (silver birch) and (aspen), which provide partial canopy cover in moister microhabitats. At the edges of these groves and in transitional zones, shrubs such as Rosa spp. (e.g., R. canina), Prunus spp. (e.g., P. spinosa), Caragana, Spiraea, and Crataegus contribute to the , forming scrubby thickets that stabilize soil and enhance . Plant species in forest steppes exhibit key adaptations to the variable environmental conditions, including through deep root systems and reduced in grasses like Stipa and , as well as fire resistance via resprouting from underground buds or rhizomes in bunchgrasses and certain shrubs. These traits enable persistence in semiarid climates prone to periodic fires and water stress. Zonal patterns within forest steppes show increasing woody cover—up to denser groves of Quercus and Carpinus—in wetter, northern or topographic lowlands, transitioning to sparser grasslands in drier southern exposures.

Fauna

The fauna of the forest steppe biome is characterized by a rich assemblage of adapted to the heterogeneous of open grasslands, patches, and edges, which provides diverse , breeding, and shelter opportunities. This supports a blend of and inhabitants, with many animals exhibiting behavioral flexibility, such as seasonal migrations or habitat shifting between open and wooded areas. High faunal diversity arises from the interplay of these s, fostering coexistence among herbivores, predators, and ground-dwelling . Mammalian communities in forest steppe regions feature prominent herbivores that graze on grasses and forbs in transitional areas, relying on herd dynamics for predator avoidance in open landscapes. , including susliks (ground squirrels of the Spermophilus, such as S. suslicus), form a key component, with burrowing colonies that aerate soils and serve as prey for higher trophic levels; these species thrive in the grassy clearings amid forests, numbering among the 44 species documented across European forest-steppe zones. Predators such as the gray wolf (Canis lupus) and (Vulpes vulpes) patrol these mosaics, preying on ungulates and small mammals while utilizing edges for denning and . Avian diversity is notable, reflecting the abundance of ground-nesting and aerial foraging opportunities. Ground-nesters like the (Otis tarda) favor open steppe patches within forest steppes for lekking and chick-rearing, adapting to sparse vegetation for and escape flights. Raptors, including the (Aquila heliaca), nest in tall trees at forest-steppe interfaces, hunting rodents and hares from perches overlooking grasslands, with their populations sustained by the prey-rich . Reptiles and highlight adaptations to the biome's edge habitats, such as burrowing to evade temperature extremes and predators. Snakes like the steppe viper (Vipera renardi) inhabit grassy slopes and forest margins, using cryptic coloration and ambush tactics in open-forest transitions. dominate invertebrate assemblages, with increasing from forest-steppe to drier zones, where they exploit herbaceous vegetation for feeding and oviposition, contributing to the as prey for birds and reptiles. Burrowing behaviors are evident in reptiles like the worm snake (Typhlops vermicularis), which occupies arid forest-steppe soils and mounds for .

Human Interactions

History and Land Use

Human presence in the forest-steppe regions of dates to the mid-Holocene, with groups transitioning to early pastoral economies around 3000 BCE in the eastern steppe areas of and adjacent zones. , characterized by mobile of sheep, , and later , became a dominant livelihood, enabling adaptation to the transitional landscapes between forests and open . This practice involved selective clearing of trees and shrubs to create and maintain open pastures, gradually modifying the natural vegetation structure and promoting expansion in areas suitable for . During the 18th to 20th centuries, agricultural expansion profoundly transformed forest-steppe landscapes, particularly in Ukraine and European Russia, where widespread plowing of fertile chernozem soils converted much of the region to cropland. By the early 20th century, a large majority (around 80%) of the forest-steppe zone in these areas had been turned into arable fields, driven by imperial Russian and later state policies promoting grain production for export. Soviet collectivization in the 1930s further intensified these changes, reorganizing private farms into large collective units that prioritized monoculture cropping and mechanized tillage, often leading to soil degradation and inefficient land management across the zone. In contemporary forest-steppe regions, land uses encompass a mix of , , and increasing , reflecting both traditional practices and modern economic pressures. remains prevalent in semi-arid portions, supporting similar to prehistoric patterns but now often integrated with to prevent . activities focus on sustainable timber harvesting in wooded fringes, while has encroached on peripheral areas, converting former agricultural lands to in growing cities. In Hungary's forest-steppe zones, rotational farming practices, involving alternating crops and periods, exemplify sustainable , enhancing and reducing in mixed agro-pastoral systems.

Conservation and Threats

Forest steppes face significant threats from primarily driven by agricultural expansion, which has converted large areas into croplands and . In the , has reduced forest cover from 33% to 10%, while cropland now occupies 42% of the landscape, leading to widespread habitat loss and isolation of remnant patches. Similarly, in the Kungur forest-steppe of Russia's Pre-Urals, 40–50% of the area is under arable cultivation, leaving only 10–20% as semi-natural , which exacerbates fragmentation and reduces connectivity for dispersal. During the Soviet Virgin Land Campaign (–), approximately 452,000 km² of grasslands, including forest steppe elements, were converted to across the former , illustrating the scale of historical and ongoing land conversion pressures. Invasive species and overgrazing further degrade forest steppe habitats by altering native plant communities and soil structure. Common invasive plants such as milkweed () and Russian olive () invade disturbed areas, outcompeting native flora and reducing in fragmented patches, particularly in the East European and Pannonian regions. Overgrazing by livestock is widespread across Russian steppes, including forest steppe zones, where it prevents natural regeneration, promotes , and favors the dominance of unpalatable species, affecting nearly all surviving pastoral areas. Climate change poses additional risks by shifting precipitation patterns and increasing aridity in southern forest steppe extents, potentially leading to drier conditions and transitions by 2050. Forest steppes are particularly sensitive to and heatwaves, which could drive forest encroachment or steppe expansion, disrupting the mosaic of woodland and habitats that define the . The ongoing Russia-Ukraine war (2022–2025) has exacerbated these threats, causing extensive environmental damage in Ukrainian forest-steppe areas. Between 2022 and 2023, nearly 1,600 km² of forests were destroyed, with wildfires, shelling, and affecting approximately 30% of protected areas. from munitions and reduced conservation efforts due to conflict have further hindered habitat recovery and protection. Conservation efforts focus on expanding protected areas and implementing restoration to mitigate these threats. In Russia, forest steppes and broader steppe biomes receive limited protection, with coverage ranging from 3–10% across subdivisions and overall less than 5% of the biome under strict safeguards as of 2015, highlighting the need for enhanced networks. Restoration projects, such as rewilding in the Danube Basin, have successfully rehabilitated over 500 hectares of steppe grasslands in the Tarutino Steppe through de-ploughing and reintroduction of native herbivores like wild horses and kulans, promoting natural grazing regimes and biodiversity recovery, though war has disrupted ongoing efforts. Ancient burial mounds (kurgans) also serve as unintentional refugia, preserving grasslands on 58% of their surfaces outside formal protected areas due to cultural and topographic barriers to cultivation.

References

  1. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-44221-4
  2. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jbi.14364
  3. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10575856/
  4. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7062704/
  5. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/67183/67183-h/67183-h.htm
  6. https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CF%5CO%5CForest6steppe.htm
  7. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362577631_How_climate_topography_soils_herbivores_and_fire_control_forest-grassland_coexistence_in_the_Eurasian_forest-steppe
  8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307630598_Exposure-related_forest-steppe_A_diverse_landscape_type_determined_by_topography_and_climate
  9. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/avsc.12382
  10. https://www.sci.muni.cz/botany/chytry/ChytryK_etal2022_J-Biogeogr.pdf
  11. https://weather.missouri.edu/gcc/Matveevetal._2016_PAG.pdf
  12. https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/south-siberian-forest-steppe/
  13. https://esdac.jrc.ec.europa.eu/events/SummerSchool_2004/files/Pete_cher.pdf
  14. https://obihiro.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/3180/files/T081104-1.pdf
  15. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0341816225001390
  16. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3806/cb6f787f0fb337af25c26f4f74922a600566.pdf
  17. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352009425000422
  18. https://soil.copernicus.org/articles/7/563/2021/
  19. https://www.fao.org/4/y1899e/y1899e11.htm
  20. https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geography_%28Physical%29/The_Physical_Environment_%28Ritter%29/11%253A_Soil_Systems/11.06%253A_Soil_Forming_%28Pedogenic%29_Processes
  21. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2010GB003871
  22. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21580103.2023.2295450
  23. https://we.copernicus.org/articles/21/95/2021/
  24. https://biking4biodiversity.org/a-steppe-in-the-heart-of-europe/
  25. https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-Great-Hungarian-Plain
  26. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1448/
  27. https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/espinal/
  28. https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/east-european-forest-steppe/
  29. https://www.oneearth.org/bioregions/kazakh-forest-steppe-grasslands-pa34/
  30. https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/altai-montane-forest-and-forest-steppe/
  31. https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/selenge-orkhon-forest-steppe/
  32. https://www.ecotenet.org/ecoregions/717
  33. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/forest-steppe
  34. https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/18/1081/2021/
  35. https://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/14/7/561
  36. https://www.blm.gov/sites/default/files/documents/files/Library_Idaho_TechnicalBulletin2001-14.pdf
  37. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.00236/full
  38. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S2079096125700155
  39. https://iucn.org/sites/default/files/import/downloads/dauriabustard.pdf
  40. https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70229674
  41. https://www.lacerta.de/AF/Bibliografie/BIB_7865.pdf
  42. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1120-y
  43. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7664836/
  44. https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstreams/4f1a1c46-ad9c-45e3-9b6a-b9fd6bad8467/download
  45. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229643477_From_Spatial_Continuity_to_Fragmentation_The_Case_of_Russian_Farming
  46. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/avsc.12756
  47. https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/40394/191674181-MIT.pdf?sequence=2
  48. https://ec.europa.eu/enrd/enrd-static/fms/pdf/BA7A2748-FBA5-23D9-8FC1-A61716C5AD57.pdf
  49. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-021-02292-7
  50. https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.14148
  51. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/373902152_Changes_in_the_Occurrence_of_Five_Invasive_Plant_Species_in_Different_Ecosystem_Types_between_2009-2018_in_Hungary
  52. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280100347_Impact_of_the_invasive_species_Elaeagnus_Angustifolia_L_on_vegetation_in_pontic_desert_steppe_ZONE_Southern_Ukraine
  53. https://phys.org/news/2025-03-devastating-forest-loss-ukraine-highlights.html
  54. https://ecologicalprocesses.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13717-025-00577-1
  55. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278719466_The_Steppe_Biome_in_Russia_Ecosystem_Services_Conservation_Status_and_Actual_Challenges
  56. https://rewildingeurope.com/news/rewilding-ukrainian-steppe/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.