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Forsterite
Forsterite
Forsterite
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Forsterite
Forsterite (big tabular and colorless) on sanidine (little colorless crystals)
with hematite (reddish)
General
CategoryNesosilicates
FormulaMagnesium silicate (Mg2SiO4)
IMA symbolFo[1]
Strunz classification9.AC.05
Crystal systemOrthorhombic
Crystal classDipyramidal (mmm)
H-M Symbol: (2/m 2/m 2/m)
Space groupPbnm
Unit cella = 4.7540 Å, b = 10.1971 Å
c = 5.9806 Å; Z = 4
Identification
Formula mass140.691 g·mol−1
ColorColorless, green, yellow, yellow green, white
Crystal habitDipyramidal prisms often tabular, commonly granular or compact massive
TwinningOn {100}, {011} and {012}
CleavagePerfect on {010} imperfect on {100}
FractureConchoidal
Mohs scale hardness7
LusterVitreous
StreakWhite
DiaphaneityTransparent to translucent
Specific gravity3.21 – 3.33
Optical propertiesBiaxial (+)
Refractive indexnα = 1.636 – 1.730 nβ = 1.650 – 1.739 nγ = 1.669 – 1.772
Birefringenceδ = 0.033 – 0.042
2V angle82°
Melting point1890 °C[2]
References[3][4][5]

Forsterite (Mg2SiO4; commonly abbreviated as Fo; also known as white olivine) is the magnesium-rich end-member of the olivine solid solution series. It is isomorphous with the iron-rich end-member, fayalite. Forsterite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system (space group Pbnm) with cell parameters a 4.75 Å (0.475 nm), b 10.20 Å (1.020 nm) and c 5.98 Å (0.598 nm).[2]

Forsterite is associated with igneous and metamorphic rocks and has also been found in meteorites. In 2005 it was also found in cometary dust returned by the Stardust probe.[6] In 2011 it was observed as tiny crystals in the dusty clouds of gas around a forming star.[7]

Two polymorphs of forsterite are known: wadsleyite (also orthorhombic) and ringwoodite (isometric, cubic crystal system). Both are mainly known from meteorites.

Peridot is the gemstone variety of forsterite olivine.

Composition

[edit]
Orange forsterite with a portion of tephroite

Pure forsterite is composed of magnesium, oxygen and silicon. The chemical formula is Mg2SiO4. Forsterite, fayalite (Fe2SiO4) and tephroite (Mn2SiO4) are the end-members of the olivine solid solution series; other elements such as Ni and Ca substitute for Fe and Mg in olivine, but only in minor proportions in natural occurrences. Other minerals such as monticellite (CaMgSiO4), an uncommon calcium-rich mineral, share the olivine structure, but solid solution between olivine and these other minerals is limited. Monticellite is found in contact metamorphosed dolomites.[2]

Geologic occurrence

[edit]

Forsterite-rich olivine is the most abundant mineral in the mantle above a depth of about 400 km (250 mi); pyroxenes are also important minerals in this upper part of the mantle.[8] Although pure forsterite does not occur in igneous rocks, dunite often contains olivine with forsterite contents at least as Mg-rich as Fo92 (92% forsterite – 8% fayalite); common peridotite contains olivine typically at least as Mg-rich as Fo88.[9] Due to its high melting point, olivine crystals are the first minerals to precipitate from a magmatic melt in a cumulate process, often with orthopyroxenes. Forsterite-rich olivine is a common crystallization product of mantle-derived magma. Olivine in mafic and ultramafic rocks typically is rich in the forsterite end-member.

Forsterite also occurs in dolomitic marble which results from the metamorphism of high magnesium limestones and dolomites.[10] Nearly pure forsterite occurs in some metamorphosed serpentinites. Fayalite-rich olivine is much less common. Nearly pure fayalite is a minor constituent in some granite-like rocks, and it is a major constituent of some metamorphic banded iron formations.

Structure, formation, and physical properties

[edit]

Forsterite is mainly composed of the anion SiO44− and the cation Mg2+ in a molar ratio 1:2.[11] Silicon is the central atom in the SiO44− anion. Each oxygen atom is bonded to the silicon by a single covalent bond. The four oxygen atoms have a partial negative charge because of the covalent bond with silicon. Therefore, oxygen atoms need to stay far from each other in order to reduce the repulsive force between them. The best geometry to reduce the repulsion is a tetrahedral shape. The cations occupy two different octahedral sites which are M1 and M2 and form ionic bonds with the silicate anions. M1 and M2 are slightly different. M2 site is larger and more regular than M1 as shown in Fig. 1. The packing in forsterite structure is dense. The space group of this structure is Pbnm and the point group is 2/m 2/m 2/m which is an orthorhombic crystal structure.

Fig. 1: The atomic scale structure of forsterite looking along the a axis. Oxygen is shown in red, silicon in pink, and Mg in blue. A projection of the unit cell is shown by the black rectangle.

This structure of forsterite can form a complete solid solution by replacing the magnesium with iron.[12] Iron can form two different cations which are Fe2+ and Fe3+. The iron(II) ion has the same charge as magnesium ion and it has a very similar ionic radius to magnesium. Consequently, Fe2+ can replace the magnesium ion in the olivine structure.

One of the important factors that can increase the portion of forsterite in the olivine solid solution is the ratio of iron(II) ions to iron(III) ions in the magma.[13] As the iron(II) ions oxidize and become iron(III) ions, iron(III) ions cannot form olivine because of their 3+ charge. The occurrence of forsterite due to the oxidation of iron was observed in the Stromboli volcano in Italy. As the volcano fractured, gases and volatiles escaped from the magma chamber. The crystallization temperature of the magma increased as the gases escaped. Because iron(II) ions were oxidized in the Stromboli magma, little iron(II) was available to form Fe-rich olivine (fayalite). Hence, the crystallizing olivine was Mg-rich, and igneous rocks rich in forsterite were formed.

Molar volume vs. pressure at room temperature

At high pressure, forsterite undergoes a phase transition into wadsleyite; under the conditions prevailing in the Earth's upper mantle, this transformation would occur at pressures of ca. 14–15 GPa.[14] In high-pressure experiments, the transformation may be delayed so that forsterite can remain metastable at pressures up to almost 50 GPa (see fig.).

The progressive metamorphism between dolomite and quartz react to form forsterite, calcite and carbon dioxide:[15]

Forsterite reacts with quartz to form the orthopyroxene mineral enstatite in the following reaction:

Discovery and name

[edit]
Forsterite var. peridot with minor pyroxene (brown) on vesicular basalt. Collected near Peridot, Arizona.

Forsterite was first described in 1824 for an occurrence at Mount Somma, Vesuvius, Italy. It was named by Armand Lévy in 1824 after the English naturalist and mineral collector Adolarius Jacob Forster.[16][17]

Applications

[edit]

Forsterite is being currently studied as a potential biomaterial for implants owing to its superior mechanical properties.[18]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Forsterite

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Forsterite is a nesosilicate mineral and the magnesium end-member of the series, with the ideal Mg₂SiO₄. It forms isolated tetrahedra (SiO₄) linked by magnesium cations in octahedral coordination, resulting in an orthorhombic crystal structure. This mineral is typically colorless to pale green, exhibits a vitreous luster, and possesses a Mohs of 6.5–7, making it relatively durable for geological contexts. Forsterite's physical properties include a specific of approximately 3.2 for pure compositions, a , and no distinct cleavage, which distinguishes it from other . It displays with refractive indices of approximately 1.635 (α), 1.651 (β), and 1.670 (γ), often showing second- to third-order interference colors under polarized light. Chemically, it is ionic in nature, with Mg-O bonds carrying a 2+ charge, and it can incorporate minor substitutions like iron (forming solid solutions toward , Fe₂SiO₄) or (tephroite). These properties render forsterite stable under high-temperature and high-pressure conditions typical of mantle-derived rocks. Forsterite occurs primarily in ultramafic igneous rocks such as , , and , where it can constitute up to 95% of the rock mass, as well as in gabbros, basalts, and certain metamorphic marbles derived from siliceous . Significant deposits are found in a 300-mile belt along the in and Georgia, USA, with estimated reserves exceeding 200 million tons of unaltered containing 48% magnesia on average (as of 1941). It is also present in extraterrestrial materials, including pallasite meteorites and carbonaceous chondrites, highlighting its role in early solar system formation. Alteration products like often form from forsterite through hydrothermal processes. Forsterite holds importance in and industry; gem-quality varieties, known as , are used in jewelry due to their transparency and green hue. As a material, it withstands temperatures above 1,700°C with low (0.0000106–0.0000118 per °C) and high pyrometric cone equivalents (>35), making it suitable for furnace linings and ceramics. Recent explores its carbonation in supercritical CO₂ for formation, aiding efforts. In mineral evolution studies, forsterite's presence traces mantle processes and .

Properties

Chemical Composition

Forsterite is a nesosilicate mineral with the ideal \ceMg2SiO4\ce{Mg2SiO4}, consisting of magnesium cations coordinated with isolated tetrahedra. It represents the magnesium-rich end-member of the group, a series of solid solutions where divalent cations occupy octahedral sites in the crystal lattice. The group forms a complete series between forsterite (\ceMg2SiO4\ce{Mg2SiO4}) and (\ceFe2SiO4\ce{Fe2SiO4}), allowing continuous substitution of Fe²⁺ for Mg²⁺ across the compositional range. Additionally, forsterite participates in a series with tephroite (\ceMn2SiO4\ce{Mn2SiO4}), extending the variability through Mn²⁺ substitution for Mg²⁺, though this is less common in natural occurrences. The forsterite content in is quantified using the forsterite number (Fo), expressed as the molar percentage of the Mg end-member relative to the total Mg + Fe content, providing a key metric for compositional analysis. In natural forsterite samples, minor ionic substitutions occur, primarily Ni²⁺ replacing Mg²⁺ in the octahedral sites due to similar ionic radii and charge, which can influence trace element partitioning. Calcium (Ca²⁺) substitution is also possible, though limited by its larger ionic radius, typically appearing at low concentrations in Mg-rich compositions. These substitutions are generally minor, with natural forsterite crystals often exhibiting purities of Fo 88–92, indicating 88–92 mol% Mg₂SiO₄ in the solid solution. Such compositions reflect the mineral's formation in magnesium-dominant environments, like ultramafic rocks.

Crystal Structure

Forsterite crystallizes in the with Pbnm. This structure is characteristic of the group, where forsterite represents the magnesium end-member. As a nesosilicate, forsterite features isolated SiO₄ tetrahedra that are linked together by Mg²⁺ cations occupying octahedral coordination sites. The atoms are centrally positioned within slightly distorted tetrahedra, while the magnesium atoms are surrounded by six oxygen atoms in M1 and M2 octahedral sites, forming a framework that accommodates the isolated units through . At standard conditions, the unit cell parameters of forsterite are approximately a = 4.75 , b = 10.20 , and c = 5.98 . These dimensions reflect the close-packed arrangement of oxygen anions with interstitial cations, contributing to the overall stability of the lattice. Forsterite exhibits phase stability under ambient to moderate conditions but undergoes polymorphic transitions at high pressures relevant to . Specifically, above approximately 14 GPa, it transforms to , a denser polymorph with orthorhombic and Imma, involving a reorganization of the tetrahedra into chains rather than isolated units. This enhances the packing efficiency without altering the .

Physical Properties

Forsterite exhibits a Mohs ranging from to 7, making it moderately resistant to scratching and suitable for certain abrasive applications. Its specific gravity varies between 3.21 and 3.33 g/cm³, reflecting its dense magnesium composition that contributes to the 's overall mass in rock formations. The displays imperfect cleavage in two directions, parallel to the (010) and (100) planes, with a when cleavage is absent, leading to irregular breaks in hand specimens. In terms of appearance, forsterite occurs in colorless, green, yellow, or varieties, often displaying a vitreous luster and producing a white streak on a plate. Optically, it is biaxial positive, with refractive indices of nα = 1.635–1.651, nβ = 1.651–1.670, and nγ = 1.669–1.689, and exhibits weak that is typically unobservable in thin sections. Forsterite demonstrates high thermal stability, with a melting point of 1890°C under standard conditions, enabling its use in environments. Its coefficient of increases from approximately 2.8 × 10⁻⁵ K⁻¹ at 400 K to 4.5 × 10⁻⁵ K⁻¹ near 2160 K, providing resistance to during heating cycles. Thermal conductivity is low, typically ranging from 1.7 to 3.5 W/m·K, which further supports its stability in high-temperature settings by minimizing heat transfer.

Occurrence and Formation

Formation Processes

Forsterite primarily forms through igneous processes by crystallizing from cooling and ultramafic magmas at low pressures and high temperatures typically ranging from 1200 to 1400 °C. In these environments, it emerges as one of the earliest minerals in the crystallization sequence, often as phenocrysts in basaltic or peridotitic compositions, due to its compatibility with magnesium-rich melts derived from of the . This process is governed by fractional crystallization, where forsterite separates from the melt, influencing the evolution of the remaining liquid toward more evolved compositions. Metamorphic formation of forsterite occurs through decarbonation reactions involving siliceous , particularly the reaction of dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂) with (SiO₂) to produce forsterite, , and CO₂:
2CaMg(CO₃)₂+SiO₂→Mg₂SiO₄+2CaCO₃+2CO₂2 \text{CaMg(CO₃)₂} + \text{SiO₂} \rightarrow \text{Mg₂SiO₄} + 2 \text{CaCO₃} + 2 \text{CO₂}
This reaction proceeds at temperatures of 700–900 °C and pressures of 0.5–2 GPa, common in contact or regional of carbonate-rich protoliths infiltrated by silica-bearing fluids. The process often begins with the simultaneous formation of forsterite and , transitioning to dominant forsterite growth as is consumed, resulting in varied textures such as twinned tabular crystals. In the Earth's , forsterite serves as a key constituent of , remaining stable under low to moderate pressures up to approximately 14–15 GPa, equivalent to depths of about 410 km. At these transition conditions, particularly around 1600–1900 , it undergoes a phase transformation to the spinel-structured polymorph , marking a significant boundary in mantle and . Synthetic production of forsterite enables tailored applications in , achieved via methods like sol-gel synthesis, , and . In approaches, magnesium and precursors (e.g., acetates or alkoxides) are mixed with such as cetyltrimethyl to form a , which is dried and at temperatures around 800–1000 °C to yield pure forsterite nanoparticles with mesoporous structures. involves heating stoichiometric mixtures of MgO and SiO₂ to promote the reaction
2MgO+SiO₂→Mg₂SiO₄2 \text{MgO} + \text{SiO₂} \rightarrow \text{Mg₂SiO₄}
typically at 1200–1400 °C, producing dense polycrystalline forms suitable for refractories. , often assisted by alkaline conditions, reacts MgO and SiO₂ suspensions in autoclaves at 200–300 °C under , followed by at 1000 °C, to generate well-dispersed nanopowders with high surface area.

Geologic Occurrence

Forsterite, the magnesium-rich endmember of the series, is a primary constituent of Earth's , where it dominates and assemblages with compositions typically ranging from Fo88 to Fo92 (89 mol% forsterite on average). These rocks form the bulk of above approximately 400 km depth and are brought to the surface as xenoliths entrained in s and basalts, preserving mantle mineralogy and providing insights into deep processes. Xenoliths from pipes, such as those in , often contain forsteritic indicative of depleted mantle sources, while those in basalts from regions like the reveal heterogeneous water distribution and histories. In igneous settings, forsterite occurs as phenocrysts and cumulates in ultramafic to rocks. It is prominent in komatiites, ancient high-temperature lavas with extremely magnesian exceeding Fo96 mol%, reflecting mantle plume-derived magmas. Gabbros, the plutonic equivalents of basalts, host forsteritic (Fo50–80) alongside and , as seen in complexes and settings. Layered intrusions, such as the Freetown Complex in or the Rhiw Intrusion in Wales, feature forsterite in stratified cumulate layers (Fo85–92), formed by fractional of mantle-derived melts. Forsterite also appears in metamorphic environments, particularly in contact aureoles around intrusions into carbonate-bearing rocks, where it forms via silicification of dolomite in marbles, yielding pure endmember compositions. In pods and mélanges, it occurs as relict grains from peridotites altered by hydration, as documented in aureoles like that of the Mount Stuart Batholith in the . Rare surface exposures include volcanic bombs from , , where forsterite crystallizes in ejecta during explosive eruptions, and green beach sands derived from of olivine-rich basalts, such as those on Hawaiian or Icelandic shores. Extraterrestrially, forsterite is abundant in chondritic meteorites, including the Allende , where low-iron (FeO <1 wt%) grains represent primitive solar nebula condensates enriched in refractory lithophile elements. It phenocrysts in lunar basalts from mare regions, with compositions varying from Fo70 to Fo90 in samples like those from , indicating mantle-derived magmas. Cometary dust from the Stardust mission's 2005 encounter with Wild 2 contains forsterite particles, suggesting high-temperature formation near the young Sun followed by ejection to the outer solar system. In stellar atmospheres, forsterite dust forms in outflows of oxygen-rich stars, with abundances derived from infrared spectra showing crystalline silicates in envelopes around high mass-loss objects.

History

Discovery

Forsterite and related minerals were recognized in ancient times, with Roman author (79 AD) possibly describing forsterite-like material as "smaragdus" or "beryllos" in his . In the , it was referred to under names such as "chrysolite" by Johan Gottschalk Wallerius in 1747 and "" by Abraham Gottlieb Werner in 1789. Forsterite was first described as a distinct mineral in 1824 from specimens found in volcanic ejecta at Mount Somma, Vesuvius, . The mineral appeared as small, perfectly formed, colorless crystals that initially resembled those of , leading to early misidentification. French mineralogist Serve-Dieu Abailard Armand Lévy provided the initial scientific recognition in his publication, distinguishing it based on its physical and from Vesuvius material in prominent collections. Lévy named the mineral forsterite to honor Adolarius Jacob Forster, a German naturalist and mineral collector whose extensive cabinet of specimens contributed significantly to early mineralogical studies. The description drew from samples in the collection of William Henry Weaver Turner, acquired by London dealer Henry Heuland, highlighting the role of 19th-century mineral trading networks in advancing identifications. In its early recognition, forsterite was often conflated with other olivines due to overlapping appearances and the incomplete understanding of the olivine series at the time. Throughout the , wet chemical analyses progressively clarified its distinct composition as the magnesium end-member, with the Mg₂SiO₄ established through repeated verifications that emphasized its high magnesia content relative to iron-bearing varieties like . Key efforts in the 1830s, involving classical techniques, quantified the Mg:SiO₄ ratio, solidifying forsterite's status as a pure magnesian .

Naming

Forsterite was named in 1824 by the French mineralogist and crystallographer Serve-Dieu Abailard Armand Lévy in honor of Adolarius Jacob Forster (1739–1806), a prominent German-born English collector and dealer known for assembling extensive collections that included specimens from . This naming recognized Forster's contributions to through his trade networks and acquisitions, which facilitated the study of volcanic minerals. The mineral is also referred to as white olivine due to its pale coloration in pure form, distinguishing it from the more iron-rich varieties in the olivine group. The gem-quality variety, particularly when rich in the forsterite component, is known as peridot. Forsterite holds approved species status from the International Mineralogical Association (IMA), with grandfathered recognition as its name predates the IMA's formal establishment in 1958. In geochemical notation for the olivine solid solution series, it is abbreviated as Fo, representing the magnesium end-member (Fo100). This nomenclature emerged amid 19th-century progress in chemical analysis and crystallography, which enabled mineralogists to differentiate the end-members of variable-composition series like olivine—forsterite as the Mg2SiO4 pole contrasting with fayalite (Fe2SiO4)—thereby refining classifications beyond earlier generic terms such as chrysolite.

Applications

Industrial Uses

Forsterite serves as a key component in refractory materials, particularly in the production of bonded forsterite bricks, monolithics, and mortars used to line furnaces and . Its high , exceeding 1890°C, and resistance to alkaline corrosion make it suitable for environments involving molten metals and aggressive fluxes in nonferrous metal and steel casting ladles. In ceramics, forsterite acts as an additive in formulations and glazes to enhance resistance, allowing products to withstand rapid temperature changes up to 1200°C without cracking. Synthetic forsterite is also employed in electrical insulators and substrates for high-temperature applications, such as solid oxide fuel cells, due to its low and excellent insulating properties at frequencies. High-purity forsterite (Fo > 90 mol%) is valued as the peridot in jewelry, prized for its olive-green color and transparency. Major sources include deposits in Pakistan's and Arizona's Peridot Mesa on San Carlos tribal lands, where gem-quality crystals are mined for into gems used in necklaces and rings. Forsterite-rich sands are utilized in applications for molds, benefiting from their low coefficient, which minimizes defects like cracking during pouring of molten alloys such as and aluminum. These sands provide high refractoriness and resistance to metal penetration, making them a preferred alternative in manganese foundries. The global market for forsterite-based refractories, driven primarily by demand in the steel industry, is projected to grow at a (CAGR) of 3.6% from 2025 to 2035, reflecting increased adoption in high-temperature industrial processes.

Research and Emerging Applications

Recent research has explored forsterite's potential as a bioactive ceramic in biomedical applications, particularly for bone implants and . Studies since 2013 have demonstrated that forsterite scaffolds promote formation on their surfaces when immersed in simulated body fluids, enhancing and osteoconduction. Porous forsterite ceramics, synthesized via techniques like space-holder methods, exhibit favorable mechanical properties and support cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation, positioning them as promising alternatives to traditional -based implants. A 2021 review highlights forsterite's superior mechanical strength and bioactivity compared to other silicates, suggesting its viability for orthopedic substitutions in load-bearing applications. In energy storage, forsterite composites with chloride salts have emerged as innovative phase change materials for high-temperature , suitable for recovery and systems. A 2025 study introduced forsterite/NaCl-KCl composites that achieve high capacities exceeding 200 kJ/kg while maintaining structural integrity after 500 thermal cycles, with improved thermal conductivity due to interfacial reactions forming phases. These materials address limitations in traditional salt-based systems by providing mechanical stability and corrosion resistance, enabling efficient energy capture in industrial and renewable applications. Geoscience investigations utilize forsterite as a proxy for dynamics due to its prevalence as the magnesium-rich endmember of , the dominant phase in . Experimental deformation studies of forsterite single crystals reveal how dislocation creep and lattice preferred orientations generate seismic , serving as analogs for interpreting mantle flow patterns from global seismic datasets. Recent modeling integrates forsterite's elastic moduli under to constrain zone and postseismic relaxation, linking observed seismic velocities to convective processes in the . In , spectroscopic observations since 2012 have identified forsterite signatures in protoplanetary disks and atmospheres, informing models of dust evolution and planet formation. data from the DIGIT program (2014) detected forsterite emission features at 69 μm in disks around young stars, indicating grain sizes of 1–10 μm concentrated in warm inner regions, consistent with annealing processes during disk evolution. More recent JWST observations in 2025 detected forsterite in protoplanetary disks around young stars, indicating hot mineral condensation and grain growth processes relevant to planet formation. Sustainability efforts in focus on industrial MgO-rich residues, such as those from , into forsterite- through reactive . A 2025 investigation demonstrated that blending MgO residues with alumina precursors yields dense forsterite-magnesium aluminate composites with enhanced resistance and stability, reducing waste disposal while promoting principles in production. This approach leverages synergistic effects between MgO and Al2O3 to achieve phase purity above 95%, offering a low-carbon alternative to virgin raw materials. Market analyses in 2025 underscore forsterite crystals' growing role in high-performance , driven by their low dielectric constant (around 6.8) and high thermal stability. These properties enable applications in microwave substrates, dielectric resonators, and laser-active media for tunable solid-state lasers operating at 1.3–1.6 μm wavelengths. Global market projections estimate the forsterite crystals sector to reach USD 846 million by 2025, with comprising a key growth segment due to demand for compact, high-frequency components in and .

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