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High pressure
High pressure
High pressure
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In science and engineering, the study of high pressure examines its effects on materials and the design and construction of devices, such as a diamond anvil cell, which can create high pressure. High pressure usually means pressures of thousands (kilobars) or millions (megabars) of times atmospheric pressure (about 1 bar or 100 kilopascals).

History and overview

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Percy Williams Bridgman received a Nobel Prize in 1946 for advancing this area of physics by two magnitudes of pressure (400 megapascals (MPa) to 40 gigapascals (GPa)). The founders of this field include also Harry George Drickamer, Tracy Hall, Francis P. Bundy, Leonid F. Vereschagin [ru], and Sergey M. Stishov [ru].

It was by applying high pressure as well as high temperature to carbon that synthetic diamonds were first produced alongside many other interesting discoveries. Almost any material when subjected to high pressure will compact itself into a denser form; for example, quartz (also called silica or silicon dioxide) will first adopt a denser form known as coesite, then upon application of even higher pressure, form stishovite. These two forms of silica were first discovered by high-pressure experimenters, but then found in nature at the site of a meteor impact.

Chemical bonding is liable to change under high pressure, when the P * V term in the free energy becomes comparable to the energies of typical chemical bonds at around 100 GPa. Among the most striking changes are metallization of oxygen at 96 GPa (rendering oxygen a superconductor), and transition of sodium from a nearly-free-electron metal to a transparent insulator at ~200 GPa. At ultimately high compression, however, all materials will metallize (see metallization pressure).‍[1]

High-pressure experimentation has led to the discovery of the types of minerals which are believed to exist in the deep mantle of the Earth, such as silicate perovskite, which is thought to make up half of the Earth's bulk, and post-perovskite, which occurs at the core-mantle boundary and explains many anomalies inferred for that region.[citation needed]

Pressure "landmarks"

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See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

High pressure

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High pressure refers to the application of forces significantly exceeding standard (approximately 0.1 GPa), often reaching gigapascals (GPa) or terapascals (TPa), which induces dramatic transformations in the elastic, electronic, magnetic, structural, and chemical properties of solids, liquids, and gases. These conditions push materials beyond conventional phase boundaries, enabling phenomena such as metallization of insulators, novel , and the formation of previously unknown compounds. In scientific research, high pressure is typically generated using devices like piston-cylinder apparatuses for moderate ranges (up to several GPa) or diamond anvil cells for extreme static pressures exceeding 400 GPa, allowing probing with to observe real-time changes. The field of high-pressure physics and chemistry originated in the early through the pioneering work of , who developed leak-proof packing techniques and achieved pressures up to 10 GPa using hydraulic presses, earning the 1946 for his inventions that opened experimental access to this regime. Bridgman's efforts revealed pressure-induced phase transitions, such as the polymorphism of , and laid the foundation for understanding matter under Earth's interior conditions. Subsequent advancements, including the invention of the in the 1950s, extended reachable pressures to over 1 TPa in modern facilities like those at , where dynamic compression techniques simulate planetary cores and fusion environments. These tools have facilitated studies of high-energy-density physics, involving densities 100–1,000 times greater than solids and temperatures up to millions of degrees . High-pressure research has profound applications across disciplines, including the industrial synthesis of superhard materials like via high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) processes exceeding 5 GPa and 1,500°C, which revolutionized abrasives and cutting tools. In , it elucidates the behavior of mantle minerals, such as deformation at 9–10 GPa, informing models of Earth's tectonic activity and propagation. Emerging discoveries include the potential metallization of hydrogen at around 500 GPa, with recent dynamic compression experiments at the reaching pressures up to 800 GPa as of 2024, relevant to and , as well as pressure-tuned in two-dimensional materials like MoS₂, achieving critical temperatures up to 11.5 K. Overall, high pressure serves as a versatile control parameter for designing novel materials with enhanced properties, from high-Tc superconductors to polyamorphic phases, bridging fundamental science with technological innovation.

Fundamentals

Definition and scope

In physics and , pressure is fundamentally defined as the force per unit area, expressed by the equation P=FAP = \frac{F}{A}, where FF is the applied force and AA is the area over which it acts. refers to conditions exceeding approximately 1 GPa (equivalent to 10,000 atmospheres or 10 kbar), at which atomic and molecular structures of materials undergo significant alterations, such as enhanced and shifts in bonding characteristics, in stark contrast to low-pressure regimes near ambient conditions (around 0.1 MPa) where such effects are negligible. The scope of high pressure studies encompasses both static pressures, which are sustained over extended durations to allow equilibrium measurements, and dynamic pressures, generated transiently through shock waves to probe rapid responses. This field is central to for exploring interatomic interactions, to for modeling planetary interiors, and to for developing advanced materials under extreme conditions. Initial effects, such as measurable volume reductions in solids and liquids, emerge in the 0.1–1 GPa range, while pressures exceeding 100 GPa enable exotic behaviors like the metallization of insulators. A key distinction in high-pressure environments is between hydrostatic conditions, where is uniformly applied via a medium to minimize shear stresses, and non-hydrostatic conditions, which predominate at higher pressures due to the solidification of transmitting media, introducing deviatoric stresses that influence material deformation.

Units and scales

In high-pressure physics, the standard unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), defined as one newton per square meter, with the gigapascal (GPa = 10⁹ Pa) serving as the primary multiple for expressing pressures in the gigapascal range and beyond. Historical units, such as the ( ≈ 101,325 Pa), bar (10⁵ Pa), and kilobar (10⁸ Pa), were widely used in early experiments but have largely been supplanted by SI units in modern research. Key conversion factors include 1 GPa ≈ 9,869 and ≈ 145,038 pounds per (psi), facilitating comparisons across engineering and scientific contexts. For ultra-high pressures exceeding 100 GPa, the megabar scale is often employed, where 1 megabar = 100 GPa = 10¹¹ Pa. These scales provide essential context for natural and experimental extremes; for instance, pressures at Earth's core reach up to approximately 360 GPa, while laboratory dynamic methods have attained up to approximately 1 TPa. In scientific literature, pressures are typically notated in MPa (10⁶ Pa) or GPa, with the straightforward relation given by PP (GPa) = PP (Pa) / 10⁹. As a baseline reference, standard atmospheric pressure is approximately 0.1 MPa.

Historical development

Pioneering experiments

The origins of high-pressure research trace back to the late , when French Émile-Hilaire Amagat conducted pioneering experiments on gas using a piston-based manometer apparatus. Between 1887 and 1893, Amagat developed instruments sealed with viscous liquids such as and , enabling measurements up to 3,000 atmospheres (0.3 GPa). His work focused on isotherms for gases like oxygen, , , air, , and across temperatures from 0°C to 258°C, revealing deviations from behavior at elevated pressures and establishing foundational data on coefficients. In the early , American physicist advanced the field through innovative apparatus designs, beginning systematic studies in 1908. By the , Bridgman had redesigned his setup with a and self-tightening packing using rubber or soft metal gaskets, achieving routine pressures of 12,000 kg/cm² (approximately 1.2 GPa) and short-term peaks up to 20,000 kg/cm² (2 GPa). Over the to 1930s, he conducted extensive investigations into the , polymorphic transitions, melting points, and electrical properties of more than 70 elements, alloys, and compounds, often under hydrostatic conditions achieved with transmitting fluids like or oils to ensure uniform distribution. These early experiments faced significant challenges, primarily from the limitations of material strength; for instance, pistons and vessels frequently deformed or exploded under load, with Bridgman reporting multiple failures during initial trials in 1910. To mitigate this, he incorporated stronger alloys like chrome-vanadium and later tungsten carbides, while relying on precise calibration via resistance gauges and fixed transition points such as bismuth's at 25,000 kg/cm². These efforts laid the groundwork for later developments, such as the in the mid-20th century.

Key advancements and Nobel contributions

In the mid-20th century, Percy Williams Bridgman's pioneering work in high-pressure physics earned him the for inventing apparatus capable of generating pressures up to several gigapascals, fundamentally expanding experimental capabilities in the field. His innovations, including self-sealing packings and piston-cylinder devices, provided a robust foundation for subsequent research, influencing the design of later high-pressure systems and enabling systematic studies of material behavior under compression. Bridgman's emphasis on operational definitions and precise measurement techniques continued to shape theoretical understanding, as seen in posthumous extensions of his methods into the and beyond. A major milestone occurred in 1954 when H. Tracy Hall at achieved the first reproducible synthesis of from under high-pressure high-temperature conditions of approximately 5–6 GPa and 1500°C, using a belt-type apparatus. The and 1960s marked significant technological breakthroughs that pushed pressure ranges toward 10 GPa and facilitated key syntheses. In 1958, H. Tracy Hall developed the tetrahedral multi-anvil press, a device using four anvils to achieve uniform pressures of up to 10 GPa at elevated temperatures, revolutionizing large-volume high-pressure experiments. Concurrently, in 1957, Robert H. Wentorf Jr. at Laboratories synthesized cubic boron nitride (c-BN) under high-pressure high-temperature conditions of approximately 5-6 GPa and 1500-2000°C, using catalysts to transform hexagonal BN into its superhard cubic phase, a material second only to in hardness. This achievement, patented as , demonstrated the potential for industrial-scale production of synthetic superhard materials via compression. International efforts further advanced the field during this era. In the , Leonid F. Vereshchagin established the Institute of High Pressure Physics in 1958, where his team achieved diamond and c-BN synthesis by the early 1960s and developed toroid-type apparatuses reaching pressures of 20 GPa, enabling studies of phase transitions in metals and semiconductors. Japanese researchers contributed to megabar-scale pursuits through refinements in multi-anvil and designs starting in the 1960s, with early experiments at institutions like exploring pressures beyond 100 GPa for geophysical simulations. The , independently invented in 1958 by teams at the National Bureau of Standards and the , extended static pressures to the megabar regime by 1975, allowing optical and observations of compressed samples. A notable milestone came in 1996 with the first experimental claim of , reported by S. T. Weir, A. C. Mitchell, and W. J. Nellis at using dynamic shock compression to 140 GPa (1.4 Mbar), where fluid exhibited metallic conductivity, though the observation remains debated due to challenges in confirming the phase. This work built on theoretical predictions and prior high-pressure studies, highlighting the interplay between compression and electronic structure changes.

Techniques for generation and measurement

Static high-pressure methods

Static high-pressure methods enable the generation and maintenance of elevated pressures in environments under equilibrium conditions, allowing for extended-duration experiments on material behavior. These techniques typically involve mechanical compression using solid or hydraulic components to achieve quasi-hydrostatic conditions, facilitating in-situ measurements such as and . Unlike dynamic approaches, they prioritize low strain rates to minimize non-equilibrium effects, supporting studies of phase stability and structural changes over hours or days. The -cylinder apparatus represents one of the earliest and most accessible static high-pressure tools, employing a to drive a into a cylindrical sample chamber sealed with soft metal , such as or , to contain the pressure medium and prevent leakage. This setup routinely achieves pressures of 3–5 GPa at temperatures up to 2000°C, making it suitable for simulating crustal conditions in petrological experiments. The deform plastically to accommodate volume reduction, ensuring uniform pressure distribution around the sample, though frictional losses along the walls limit higher pressures. Multi-anvil presses extend the accessible range by employing multiple solid —typically eight cubic cubes arranged to compress an octahedral pressure medium containing the sample—to distribute forces more evenly and access larger sample volumes than uniaxial devices. These systems, often configured in Kawai-type geometry, generate pressures of 10–25 GPa with sample volumes on the order of 10–100 mm³, enabling high-temperature synthesis up to 2500°C for geophysical simulations. The applied force FF relates to the target PP via F=P×AF = P \times A, where AA is the effective anvil face area, though geometric adaptations account for anvil truncation and medium to optimize hydrostaticity. The (DAC) stands as the cornerstone of static high-pressure research since its development in the late , utilizing two opposed gem-quality with flat or beveled culets to compress a sample chamber typically 50–200 μm in diameter, achieving hydrostatic or near-hydrostatic conditions through a pressure-transmitting medium like or . Pressures exceeding 300 GPa have been realized, far surpassing other static methods, with the 's exceptional hardness and transparency enabling optical access for probes like X-ray diffraction and . heating, often via a doubled Nd:YAG source, allows simultaneous temperatures up to 4000 K, facilitating exploration of extreme interior conditions. The technique originated from early efforts at the National Bureau of Standards to adapt for compression. A key advancement across these methods, particularly the DAC, is in-situ pressure using ruby , where tiny chips of (Cr³⁺-doped Al₂O₃) are embedded in the sample chamber. Excitation at 532 nm produces sharp R-line emissions, with the prominent R₁ line shifting linearly with pressure by approximately Δλ ≈ 0.365 nm/GPa at under hydrostatic conditions, allowing non-invasive determination of pressure from the wavelength shift via . This standard, refined over decades, provides accuracy to within 0.1 GPa up to 30 GPa and remains reliable to higher pressures with equation-of-state corrections.

Dynamic high-pressure techniques

Dynamic high-pressure techniques involve the generation of transient shock waves to achieve ultra-high pressures in materials, typically ranging from 100 GPa to several TPa, over durations of microseconds or less. These methods probe non-equilibrium states where rapid compression induces high and allows investigation of dynamic material responses, such as wave propagation and strength, that differ from quasi-static conditions. Unlike sustained compression, shock waves create planar fronts that propagate through samples, enabling the measurement of equation-of-state data under extreme conditions. Shock waves are generated using high-velocity drivers, including gas guns, chemical explosives, and high-power lasers, which accelerate projectiles or ablate surfaces to launch compression fronts. Gas guns propel impactors to speeds of several kilometers per second, while explosives provide rapid release for similar velocities, and lasers deliver intense pulses that vaporize targets, generating plasma-driven shocks. These approaches achieve pressures in the 100 GPa to TPa regime by converting kinetic or photonic into compressive work on short timescales, often nanoseconds to microseconds. For instance, two-stage light-gas guns can reach impact velocities up to 8 km/s, producing shocks that reveal material behavior at terapascal levels. A primary implementation is the plate impact experiment, where a flyer plate is launched at 5–10 km/s to collide with a target sample, generating a well-defined . The resulting pressure PP on the principal Hugoniot curve, which describes the locus of shock states, is given by P=ρ0UsupP = \rho_0 U_s u_p, where ρ0\rho_0 is the initial , UsU_s the shock speed, and upu_p the behind the shock. Measurements of arrival times and velocities via or velocity gauges yield these parameters, allowing derivation of sound speeds and yield strength under . Such experiments have mapped Hugoniot states up to 950 GPa in silicates, highlighting deviations from hydrostatic behavior. Advanced variants include laser-driven compression for inertial confinement, where focused pulses exceed 1 TPa by ablating and imploding targets, creating spherical or cylindrical shocks for fusion-relevant studies. The at employs magnetic compression via , imploding liners to terapascal pressures while incorporating laser preheating for enhanced confinement. These techniques measure dynamic properties like sound speed and , providing insights into material failure and phase changes under non-equilibrium conditions. The origins of these methods trace to the 1940s during the , where shock compression was developed for nuclear weapons design, with adaptation to broader in the 1960s through declassified research on equations of state. Early plate impact setups in the 1950s established the field, evolving to include and magnetic drivers by the late . Static methods, such as ruby fluorescence in diamond anvil cells, occasionally calibrate dynamic results at lower pressures for continuity.

Physical and chemical effects

Changes in material properties

High pressure significantly alters the mechanical and thermodynamic properties of materials by reducing their volume and modifying interatomic interactions. , a key measure of this response, is quantified by the K=−V(∂P∂V)TK = -V \left( \frac{\partial P}{\partial V} \right)_T, which represents the material's resistance to uniform compression. As pressure increases, the typically rises for most solids, liquids, and gases, indicating that materials become progressively harder to compress further due to closer atomic packing and stronger repulsive forces. For example, , with an initial of approximately 2.2 GPa at ambient conditions, experiences about a 4% volume reduction at 0.1 GPa under isothermal compression, highlighting its relatively high initial compared to metals. In solids and liquids, density changes arise directly from this compression, with volume reductions leading to substantial increases in mass per unit volume. For metals, the extent of densification varies with atomic structure and bonding strength; softer alkali metals like sodium can undergo up to fourfold volume compression (corresponding to a density increase of about 4 times) at around 100 GPa, transitioning toward more complex electronic behaviors. In contrast, transition metals like iron show more modest changes, with densities rising by roughly 30-40% at 100 GPa due to their higher initial bulk moduli around 170 GPa. Fluids exhibit similar trends, but with additional rheological shifts: viscosity in liquids generally increases under high pressure as molecular free volume decreases, impeding flow; for instance, certain lubricating oils can see viscosity rise by up to tenfold at pressures exceeding 1 GPa, affecting their performance in high-load applications. Thermodynamic properties, such as melting points, also shift under pressure according to the Clausius-Clapeyron relation, where increased pressure favors the denser phase and elevates the temperature required for melting in most materials. For iron, the melting temperature rises from 1811 K at ambient pressure to approximately 3090 K at 103 GPa, reflecting strengthened metallic bonding and reduced entropy change upon melting at high densities. These thermal effects can trigger phase transitions in extreme cases, but the continuous modifications in properties like density and modulus provide foundational insights into material stability. High pressure can further influence electronic properties, enhancing in select materials by optimizing -mediated electron pairing. In (MgB₂), which has a baseline critical temperature TcT_c of about 39 K at , hydrostatic pressure up to 1 GPa initially causes a slight increase in TcT_c (by up to 1-2 K in high-quality samples) before a decline, attributed to pressure-induced adjustments in the spectrum. Such enhancements underscore how pressure tunes quantum properties without inducing discrete structural changes.

Phase transitions and new states of matter

High pressure induces discrete phase transitions in solids, where atomic or molecular arrangements undergo abrupt changes to more compact structures, often driven by the minimization of . A classic example is the solid-solid transition in silica (SiO₂), where transforms to the denser polymorph at pressures of 2–3 GPa under ambient temperatures, followed by a further transition to stishovite at approximately 10 GPa. These transitions are reconstructive, involving significant bond breaking and reformation, and are pivotal in understanding shock-induced changes in crustal rocks. The of such pressure-induced transitions is governed by the difference between phases, where the stable phase is the one with the lowest G at given temperature T and pressure P. For two phases in equilibrium, the change in is zero (ΔG = 0), approximated as: ΔG=ΔH−TΔS+PΔV\Delta G = \Delta H - T \Delta S + P \Delta V Here, ΔH is the change, ΔS the change, and ΔV the volume change (typically negative for high-pressure phases, favoring denser structures at elevated P). This PΔV term shifts the transition pressure upward from ambient conditions, enabling the stabilization of high-density polymorphs. Beyond structural rearrangements, high pressure can trigger electronic phase transitions, such as from insulating to metallic states, by altering orbital overlaps and band structures. , for instance, undergoes an insulator-to-metal transition at 96 GPa, accompanied by a within its ε-phase without molecular dissociation, leading to increased electrical conductivity. Similarly, sodium at around 200 GPa forms an phase, where valence electrons become and delocalized, exhibiting topological properties with Dirac nodal surfaces. Extreme pressures also yield novel states of inaccessible at ambient conditions. Water, under compression exceeding 50 GPa and temperatures near 2,000 , enters a superionic phase (ice XVIII), where oxygen ions form a fixed lattice while protons diffuse freely, resembling a solid-liquid hybrid with high ionic conductivity. , a long-predicted state, is theoretically expected above 500 GPa, where molecular bonds dissociate into an atomic lattice with superconducting potential at low temperatures. A landmark discovery in the 1980s confirmed that silicate perovskites, synthesized at mantle-relevant pressures above 24 GPa, dominate the lower mantle's , constituting approximately 50% of Earth's total volume and influencing its seismic profile and heat transport.

Applications and implications

Industrial and technological uses

One of the most prominent industrial applications of high-pressure technology is the synthesis of using the high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) method, first achieved by in 1955 through the use of a belt press apparatus. This process replicates natural diamond formation by subjecting a carbon source, such as , along with a metal catalyst, to pressures of 5–6 GPa and temperatures around 1,400°C, enabling the direct conversion from to within the stable region of the carbon . Today, HPHT accounts for over 90% of industrial production, with global output of approximately 15.4 billion carats annually as of 2023, primarily for abrasives, cutting tools, and drilling applications, generating billions in economic value for industries like mining and manufacturing. The growth rate of diamonds in the HPHT is fundamentally influenced by (P) and (T), as determined by their position relative to the graphite-diamond equilibrium line in the carbon ; for instance, optimal growth occurs at P > 5 GPa and T ≈ 1,400–1,600°C, where the of carbon in the metallic catalyst drives the rate of diamond and layer-by-layer addition, typically yielding crystals at rates of several micrometers per hour under controlled conditions. High-pressure synthesis also enables the production of superhard materials like polycrystalline (PCD) and cubic (cBN), which are formed by fine particles of diamond or hexagonal boron nitride with metal binders under extreme pressures exceeding 5 GPa and temperatures above 1,400°C. These materials exhibit approaching that of single-crystal diamond, making them essential for cutting tools in ferrous and non-ferrous metals, where they extend tool life by up to 100 times compared to traditional inserts and reduce manufacturing costs in automotive and sectors. PCD, in particular, dominates non-ferrous applications, while cBN is preferred for due to its thermal stability, contributing to an annual exceeding $1 billion for superabrasives. In , high-pressure processing (HPP) utilizes isostatic pressures of 400–600 MPa at ambient temperatures to achieve , inactivating pathogens like and by disrupting microbial cell membranes without applying heat, thereby preserving nutritional value, flavor, and texture in products such as juices, ready meals, and seafood. This non-thermal method has revolutionized the industry by extending to 2–3 times that of conventional while minimizing energy use and waste, with global HPP capacity exceeding 600 units as of 2025 and enabling premium pricing for high-quality preserved foods, valued at hundreds of millions annually.

Geophysical and planetary science insights

High-pressure research has profoundly illuminated the composition and dynamics of Earth's interior. In the , (DAC) experiments synthesized and characterized MgSiO₃ , now known as bridgmanite, confirming it as the most abundant in the , constituting approximately 38% of Earth's volume in the . This phase dominates from depths of about 660 km to 2,700 km, where pressures exceed 24 GPa, providing a structural framework that aligns with geophysical models of and . Deeper in the mantle, near the core-mantle boundary (CMB) at around 135 GPa and 2,500 K, MgSiO₃ undergoes a to post-perovskite, a denser structure observed in the D″ layer spanning the lowermost 200–300 km of . This transition, first identified through in situ X-ray diffraction in laser-heated DACs, explains seismic discontinuities such as shear-wave velocity reductions by up to 3% across the D″ layer, influencing dynamics and slab . At the core, the curve of iron, extrapolated and measured to 300 GPa, indicates a melting temperature of approximately 6,000–6,500 K at inner core boundary conditions (around 330 GPa), with recent 2024 studies refining this to about 6,230 K, constraining the thermal state and solidification processes that generate . Seismic wave speeds in the deep —compressional (Vp) and shear (Vs) velocities—correlate closely with high-pressure elastic properties of these phases. For instance, calculations and Brillouin scattering measurements of MgSiO₃ and post-perovskite under mantle pressures (up to 150 GPa) yield Vp values of 10–13 km/s and Vs of 6–8 km/s, matching (PREM) profiles and resolving lateral heterogeneities in the . Iron-bearing variants further refine these matches, with iron content reducing Vs by 1–2% per 10 mol%, aiding interpretations of tomographic images that reveal subducted slabs and hotspots. Beyond Earth, high-pressure insights extend to , particularly exoplanets. In super-Earths with masses 5–10 times Earth's, mantle models predict MgSiO₃ post-perovskite persists up to 1 TPa before dissociating into oxides, influencing radiative heat transport and magnetic activity in these worlds. For icy giants like and , where pressures reach 100–200 GPa in water-rich mantles, phases such as Ice VII—a body-centered cubic structure—form under 2–60 GPa and temperatures up to 1,000 K, contributing to layered convection and the planets' tilted magnetic fields through ionic conductivity.

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