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A geographical axis of rotation A (green), and showing the north geographical pole A1, and south geographical pole A2; also showing a magnetic field and the magnetic axis of rotation B (blue), and the north magnetic pole B1, and south magnetic pole B2.

A geographical pole or geographic pole is either of the two points on Earth where its axis of rotation intersects its surface.[1] The North Pole lies in the Arctic Ocean while the South Pole is in Antarctica. North and South poles are also defined for other planets or satellites in the Solar System, with a North pole being on the same side of the invariable plane as Earth's North pole.[2]

Relative to Earth's surface, the geographic poles move by a few metres over periods of a few years.[3] This is a combination of Chandler wobble, a free oscillation with a period of about 433 days; an annual motion responding to seasonal movements of air and water masses; and an irregular drift towards the 80th west meridian.[4] As cartography and geodesy require exact and unchanging coordinates, the average or nominal[citation needed] locations of geographical poles are taken as fixed cartographic poles or geodetic poles, the points where the body's great circles of longitude intersect; in practice this is achieved by keeping latitude values of survey markers fixed and accounting for time variations in terms of Earth orientation parameters.

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Geographical pole

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A geographical pole, or geographic pole, is one of the two points on 's surface where its axis of intersects the planet's crust, defining the endpoints of the imaginary line around which spins once every 24 hours. The North Geographic Pole lies at 90° N in the middle of the , covered by shifting with no underlying , while the South Geographic Pole is at 90° S on the Antarctic continent's ice-covered plateau, approximately 2,800 meters above . These poles serve as the reference points for Earth's global , where all lines of converge and reaches its extremes, influencing , patterns, and the planet's rotational dynamics. Due to Earth's 23.5° relative to its , the geographic poles experience extreme seasonal variations: roughly six months of continuous daylight during their respective summer (the polar day) and six months of continuous darkness during winter (the ), with the Sun circling the horizon without rising or setting. Unlike the magnetic poles, which are determined by Earth's geomagnetic field and shift over time due to molten core dynamics, the geographic poles remain fixed relative to the but exhibit minor wobbles from caused by mass redistributions like melting or groundwater changes. The North Pole's position over makes it inaccessible by land and prone to seasonal ice melt, while the South Pole's continental setting supports permanent research stations, such as the Amundsen-Scott Station, facilitating studies on , astrophysics, and .

Definition and Fundamentals

Definition of Geographical Poles

The geographical poles are the two points on Earth's surface where its axis of rotation intersects the crust, defining the North Geographical Pole at 90° N and the South Geographical Pole at 90° S . These points represent the endpoints of the planet's rotational axis and remain fixed relative to Earth's geographic features, unlike other types of poles influenced by dynamic fields. At the geographical poles, all lines of converge, forming the northern and southern termini of the global used for mapping and . This convergence underscores their role as the ultimate references for , where every direction points south from the and north from the . The geographical poles align with the projections of Earth's axis onto the , corresponding to the celestial poles, though their primary significance lies in terrestrial .

Relation to Earth's Rotation and Axis

The geographical poles are defined as the points where 's axis of rotation intersects the planet's surface. rotates on this axis once every approximately 24 hours, producing the cycle of day and night, while the axis itself is tilted at an obliquity of about 23.44° relative to the plane of its orbit . This tilt, known as axial obliquity, is responsible for the seasonal variations experienced on , as different hemispheres receive varying amounts of sunlight throughout the year due to the changing orientation of the axis relative to the Sun. Over longer timescales, Earth's rotation axis undergoes , a slow wobble caused primarily by gravitational torques from the Sun and acting on Earth's . This precession completes one full cycle approximately every 26,000 years, gradually shifting the direction in which the axis points in space—such as changing the star visible as the North Star—but the geographical poles remain fixed in the planet's , as the precession affects the orientation relative to distant celestial references rather than the surface intersection points. In mathematical terms, the geographical poles are represented in spherical coordinate systems commonly used in , where is related to the θ\theta (the angle from the positive z-axis, aligned with the rotation axis). The North Geographical Pole corresponds to θ=0∘\theta = 0^\circ, directly along the axis, while the South Geographical Pole is at θ=180∘\theta = 180^\circ. This convention ensures that around the axis is preserved in models of Earth's dynamics. The positions of the geographical poles exhibit remarkable stability over human timescales, with shifts due to occurring at rates of approximately 0.2° per million years in recent geological history, rendering them effectively fixed against the backdrop of . Plate movements, driven by , do not directly displace the exact polar points, as the rotation axis is maintained by the planet's overall mass distribution and angular momentum conservation.

North Geographical Pole

Location and Physical Characteristics

The North Geographical Pole is defined as the point on Earth's surface at exactly 90°00′00″N , marking the northern intersection of the planet's rotational axis with its surface. It lies in the middle of the , covered by shifting with no underlying landmass, at an elevation of approximately atop the floating . This location overlies the Arctic Ocean basin, with water depth approximately 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) beneath the , which is typically 2–3 meters (6–10 feet) thick for first-year ice and up to 4 meters for multi-year ice, though thickness has declined over recent decades due to —as of 2023, average winter thickness is around 2.1 meters. The ice pack drifts with currents and winds at rates of 1–10 meters per day, causing the pole's surface position to shift continuously; thus, any marker is temporary and tracked via GPS. The surrounding terrain is a dynamic expanse of , characterized by leads (open water cracks), pressure ridges, and seasonal melt ponds, with temperatures ranging from near 0°C in summer to -40°C in winter, milder than Antarctic extremes but influenced by the open . Geologically, the North Pole's oceanic setting contrasts with the South Pole's , making it prone to lateral drift, seasonal thinning, and potential open water encroachment during summer minima, though the exact pole remains -covered year-round. No permanent structures exist due to the moving .

Historical

Early explorations toward the North Geographical Pole were hindered by the shifting pack ice, strong currents like the Transpolar Drift, and the vast, featureless expanse, which posed navigation challenges and risks of being frozen in. In the , British expeditions such as William Parry's voyage reached 82°45′N aboard HMS Hecla, the farthest north at the time, but were blocked by impenetrable ice barriers and dwindling supplies. No serious pole attempts occurred until the late , amid the race for polar primacy, with explorers facing , , and uncertain latitudes in an era before reliable chronometers and aviation. The early 20th century saw competing claims amid limited verification methods. American explorer claimed to have reached the pole on April 21, 1908, with two companions using dogsleds from , covering about 1,000 kilometers in 14 months, but his account lacked corroboration and was later discredited. Weeks later, Robert Peary's expedition claimed attainment on April 6, 1909, after a 1,400-kilometer sledge journey from with and four , enduring extreme fatigue and lead crossings; however, this remains controversial due to navigation discrepancies, incomplete records, and no independent witnesses, with modern analyses suggesting they fell short by 50–100 kilometers. Aerial exploration revolutionized access, circumventing ice hazards though early flights faced fuel limits and instrument failures. On May 12, 1926, Norwegian , American , and Italian achieved the first undisputed overflight in the Norge, departing from , , on a 2,200-kilometer journey to , dropping markers at the pole; this feat was verified by radio and logs. American Richard Byrd claimed an earlier overflight on May 9, 1926, but doubts persist over exact timing and . Post-World War II, submarine technology enabled under-ice transit: on August 3, 1958, the became the first vessel to reach the pole submerged, navigating 1,800 kilometers under 120 meters of ice from the Pacific, confirmed by the U.S. Navy. Surface traverses advanced with mechanization; the first verified overland journey occurred in 1968, when Plaisted's team reached the pole by after 600 kilometers from in 42 days, tracked by satellite.

South Geographical Pole

Location and Physical Characteristics

The South Geographical Pole is defined as the point on Earth's surface at exactly 90°00′00″S , marking the southern intersection of the planet's rotational axis with its surface. It lies on the continent within the , at an elevation of approximately 2,835 meters (9,301 feet) above , atop the vast known as the Polar Plateau. This location overlies continental , buried beneath an up to 2,700 meters (8,860 feet) thick, which flows gradually southward at a rate of about 10 meters (33 feet) per year due to glacial dynamics. As a result, the ceremonial marker at the pole is repositioned annually to align with the fixed geographic coordinates. The surrounding terrain forms a high, relatively flat expanse of , characterized by extreme and katabatic that drain from the elevated interior toward the continental margins, shaping the harsh surface environment. Geologically, the South Pole's position on stable distinguishes it from the North Geographical Pole's floating , rendering it less prone to significant lateral drift or oceanic influences, with no open water present in the vicinity.

Historical Exploration

Early explorations of the South Geographical Pole were limited by the formidable pack and the vast, uncharted , which presented unique terrestrial barriers such as impenetrable barriers and extreme cold that thwarted sledging attempts. In 1841, British naval officer led an expedition aboard and HMS Terror, penetrating the pack and reaching a southernmost of 78°S on February 2, before being halted by the towering Great Ice Barrier (now known as the ). This marked the farthest south achieved in the pre-20th century era, with no serious attempts to reach the geographical pole until the onset of the , which spanned from 1897 to 1922 and featured intensified efforts amid worsening weather and logistical hardships. The Heroic Age saw escalating rivalries and innovations in overland travel, though 's crevassed glaciers and high-altitude plateaus continued to demand superhuman endurance from explorers relying on manpower, ponies, and dogs. Norwegian explorer achieved the first verified attainment of the on December 14, 1911, leading a team of four men who departed from their base at the Bay of Whales using dogsleds for efficient transport across the ice, covering approximately 3,440 kilometers (1,860 nautical miles) in 99 days while navigating unknown terrain and altitudes up to 3,000 meters. Just over a month later, on January 17, 1912, British explorer Robert Falcon Scott's five-man polar party arrived at the pole after a grueling 1,500-kilometer man-hauling journey via the , only to discover Amundsen's tent and flag; all perished on the return due to blizzards, , and depleted supplies, their bodies found 18 kilometers from a supply depot in November 1912. Earlier, in January 1909, Ernest Shackleton's had come agonizingly close, reaching 88°23′S—112 miles from the pole—before turning back to avoid starvation, having ascended the with a mixed team of men and ponies amid severe and . Aerial exploration marked a technological shift, bypassing some terrestrial obstacles like sastrugi and crevasses, though disputes over exact routes persisted. On November 29, 1929, American aviator Richard E. Byrd claimed the first flight over the South Pole, piloting a Ford Trimotor from Little America on the Ross Ice Shelf in an 18-hour round trip covering 2,500 kilometers, dropping an American flag at the pole; while this achievement is widely accepted, some historical analyses question the precision of navigation due to magnetic interference. Post-1950s advancements in mechanized transport revolutionized access, enabling routine overland traverses despite ongoing challenges from katabatic winds and soft snow. In 1958, New Zealand mountaineer Edmund Hillary led the first overland party to the pole since Scott's era, using modified Ferguson TE20 tractors to cover 1,300 kilometers from Scott Base in 77 days as part of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, establishing a supply route that facilitated permanent scientific presence. Subsequent tractor trains, such as those developed by the British Antarctic Survey, have since made annual fuel and cargo hauls possible across the ice sheet.

Distinctions from Other Poles

Comparison with Magnetic Poles

The magnetic poles, also known as dip poles, are the locations on Earth's surface where the geomagnetic field is vertical, meaning the field lines are perpendicular to the surface with an inclination of 90 degrees. Unlike the geographical poles, which are fixed points defined by the planet's rotational axis, the magnetic poles wander due to dynamic changes in the geomagnetic field. The primary cause of this difference lies in the underlying physical processes: geographical poles remain stationary relative to Earth's solid surface because they align with the axis of rotation, while magnetic poles shift as a result of the geodynamo in the molten outer core, where convective motions of liquid iron generate electric currents that produce the . These cause irregular variations in the field's configuration, leading to pole migration over decades to centuries. Historically, the was first located in 1831 near in at approximately 70.5°N, 96.8°W, but it has since drifted northwestward across the toward , accelerating from about 10 km per year in the early to around 55 km per year by the 2000s before slowing further. As of 2025, according to the (WMM2025), it is positioned at 85.762°N, 139.298°E, continuing its northwestward drift at approximately 35 km per year. The exhibits similar but slower movement, having shifted northwest from the coast at rates of 5-15 km per year over the past century; its 2025 location is 63.851°S, 135.078°E. This divergence has significant implications for , as magnetic compasses align with the magnetic poles rather than the geographical ones, necessitating corrections for —the angular difference between magnetic north and —which can exceed 20° in many regions and approach 180° in extreme cases near the poles where the horizontal field component weakens. Near the magnetic poles themselves, the vertical field dominance renders traditional compasses unreliable, requiring alternative methods like gyrocompasses or GPS for precise orientation.

Comparison with Geomagnetic Poles

The geomagnetic poles represent the theoretical points where the axis of the best-fitting model intersects Earth's surface, approximating the planet's main as that of a centered bar . Unlike the geographical poles, which are fixed by Earth's rotational axis, the north is currently located at approximately 80.8°N, 72.8°W, while its south counterpart lies antipodally at about 80.8°S, 107.2°E. This dipole model serves as a simplified representation of Earth's complex, multipolar , which arises from processes in the liquid outer core and is described more fully by spherical harmonic expansions up to degree 13 in the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF). The geomagnetic poles are specifically derived from the dipole (degree 1) Gauss coefficients within the IGRF, providing a baseline orientation for the field despite higher-order multipolar contributions that cause deviations from a perfect . In contrast to the magnetic (dip) poles, which mark locations where the field is vertical and exhibit rapid drift rates of 40–60 km per year due to localized field anomalies, the geomagnetic poles are more stable, moving at roughly 8 km per year owing to smoother secular variations in the core field. This relative stability makes them valuable for applications such as predicting auroral activity, where geomagnetic coordinates define the ovals of maximum . The positions of the geomagnetic poles are calculated from global measurements collected at geomagnetic observatories and satellite missions, fitted to the IGRF model, which is updated every five years by the International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy (IAGA) to incorporate new data and predictive coefficients for the subsequent epoch. The latest iteration, IGRF-14, finalized in 2024, extends predictions through 2030 and reflects ongoing refinements to track the field's evolution.

Geographical and Scientific Significance

Role in Global Geography and Timekeeping

The geographical poles serve as the points where all lines of , or meridians, converge, marking the endpoints of the Earth's rotational axis. This convergence means that the 360 meridians meet at each pole, rendering undefined at these locations and eliminating any east-west directional distinction. The (0° ) and its antipode, the 180° meridian, thus play a pivotal role in global geography by defining the reference framework for the , which conceptually extends between the poles but deviates in practice to accommodate territorial boundaries. In terms of timekeeping, the poles lie outside conventional time zones because the meridians that delineate these zones—typically 15° apart—converge at the poles, placing both locations simultaneously in all 24 zones. As a result, personnel at the poles, such as researchers at scientific stations, universally adopt (UTC) for synchronization with global operations, avoiding discrepancies in scheduling and communication. The poles also experience extreme diurnal cycles: the midnight sun, where the Sun remains above the horizon for approximately six months (from the vernal equinox to the autumnal equinox at the ), alternates with six months of or twilight, complicating perception but reinforcing reliance on UTC. The , which follows roughly the 180° meridian from pole to pole, introduces further temporal nuance at these sites. Although it zigzags to prevent splitting island groups or landmasses—such as curving around the and —its conceptual path through the poles means date transitions occur arbitrarily based on expedition conventions or originating time zones, rather than a fixed boundary. This fluidity underscores the poles' role as neutral points in global calendrical systems. Cartographically, the poles represent singularities in many projections, necessitating specialized handling to represent global geography accurately. In the , commonly used for navigation, meridians remain parallel vertical lines, but latitude lines stretch exponentially toward the poles, causing the scale to approach infinity and making polar regions impossible to depict without truncation or . Alternative projections, such as the azimuthal equidistant, address this by centering on a pole, preserving distances from that point and portraying the opposite hemisphere as a surrounding circle, which is ideal for polar maps and hemispheric views.

Environmental Conditions and Research

The geographical poles exhibit extreme climatic conditions characterized by prolonged periods of continuous daylight and darkness due to Earth's , resulting in approximately six months of polar day and six months of each year. At the , located over the , average winter temperatures hover around -40°C, with summer months occasionally featuring open water as partially melts and temperatures rise above freezing in surrounding areas. In contrast, the , situated on the continent's high plateau, experiences even harsher conditions, with an average annual temperature of -49°C and a record low of -89.2°C recorded in 1983 at the nearby . These frigid environments support distinct ecosystems adapted to polar extremes. The Arctic region sustains marine mammals such as and seals, which rely on for hunting and breeding, alongside a variety of seabirds and fish. The , however, hosts fewer terrestrial species, with limited invertebrate life on the continent and marine ecosystems dominated by , , and seals in surrounding waters. Both poles are undergoing significant changes due to climate-driven ice melt, though the Arctic has experienced more rapid decline—losing about 13% per decade since 1979—compared to the Antarctic, where sea ice trends have been more variable but continental ice sheets are also contributing to global . Scientific research at the poles relies on specialized infrastructure to overcome logistical challenges. The lacks permanent stations at the due to its position on shifting , instead utilizing networks of drifting buoys that collect real-time data on ocean currents, temperature, and ice thickness as part of programs like the International Arctic Buoy Programme. In the , the Amundsen-Scott Station, operational since 1956, serves as a hub for year-round investigations into , including ice sheet dynamics, and , leveraging the site's clear, dry atmosphere for telescope observations of radiation. Key studies at the poles provide critical insights into Earth's climate history and atmospheric processes. Ice core sampling from both regions extracts ancient air bubbles and isotopes to reconstruct paleoclimate records spanning hundreds of thousands of years, revealing past temperature variations and levels. Over the , ongoing monitoring tracks the seasonal ozone hole, a depletion in stratospheric caused by human-emitted chlorofluorocarbons, with satellite and ground-based observations showing gradual recovery since the 1987 . Complementing these efforts, satellite missions such as NASA's and PREFIRE deliver high-resolution data on ice elevation, extent, and polar heat emissions, enabling models of future environmental changes.

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