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Gettysburg National Cemetery, originally called Soldiers' National Cemetery, is a United States national cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, created for Union army casualties sustained in the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War. The Battle of Gettysburg was fought over three days between July 1 to 3, 1863, and proved both the Civil War's deadliest and most significant battle. It resulted in over 50,000 casualties, the most of any battle in both the Civil War and all of American military history. But the battle also proved to be the war's turning point, turning the Civil War decisively in the Union's favor and leading ultimately to the nation's preservation.

Key Information

On November 19, 1863, four and a half months after the Battle of Gettysburg, Abraham Lincoln, the 16th U.S. president, traveled to Gettysburg National Cemetery, where he participated in a ceremonial consecration of it and delivered the Gettysburg Address, which is now considered one of the most famous and historically significant speeches in American history. The day of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address is observed annually at the cemetery and in Gettysburg as "Remembrance Day", which includes a parade, procession, and memorial ceremonies by thousands of Civil War reenactor troops representing both Union and Confederate armies and descendant heritage organizations led by the Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War (SUVCW) and the Sons of Confederate Veterans (SCV).

The cemetery contains 3,512 interments from the Civil War, including the graves of 979 unknowns.[3] It also has sections for veterans of subsequent wars, including the Spanish–American War (1898), World War I (1917–1918), and others, and includes graves of the veterans' spouses and children. The total number of interments exceeds 6,000.[3]

Battlefield monuments, memorials, and markers are scattered throughout the cemetery, and its stone walls, iron fences and gates, burial and section markers, and brick sidewalk are listed as contributing structures within Gettysburg Battlefield Historic District.[4]

The land on which the cemetery is located was part of the Gettysburg Battlefield, and the cemetery is within Gettysburg National Military Park, which is administered by the National Park Service, a U.S. government agency administered by the U.S. Department of Interior.[5]

Description

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The centerpiece of Gettysburg National Cemetery is Soldiers' National Monument (1869), a 60-foot-tall (18 m) granite monument designed by sculptor Randolph Rogers and architect George Keller. It is surrounded by concentric semicircles of graves, divided into 18 sections for Union states (1 each),[3] a section for United States Regulars, and three sections for unknown soldiers.[3]

Battlefield monuments within Gettysburg National Cemetery include those of the 1st United States Artillery Battery H, the 2nd Maine Battery, the 1st Massachusetts Battery (Cook's Battery), the 1st Minnesota Infantry, the 1st New Hampshire Light Battery, the 5th New York Independent Light Artillery, the 136th New York Volunteer Infantry, the 1st Ohio Battery H, the 55th Ohio Infantry, the 73rd Ohio Infantry, and the 75th Pennsylvania Infantry; and markers for the 1st Ohio Battery I and the 3rd Volunteer Brigade Artillery Reserve (Huntington's Brigade). Other monuments include the New York State Monument (1893), the Kentucky State Monument (1975), the Lincoln Address Monument (1912), the Friend to Friend Masonic Memorial (1994), the Major-General John F. Reynolds Statue (1872), and the Major-General Charles Collis Memorial (1906).

History

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In 1863, William Saunders was selected by a committee of Union governors to design the Soldiers National Cemetery. Saunders' radial plan of "simple grandeur," grouped the Union dead by states and focused on a central monument. The graves were marked with simple, unadorned, rectangular slabs of gray granite inscribed with the name, rank, company, and regiment of each soldier. Saunders noted in his description of the design that this repetition of "objects in themselves simple and common place" was meant to evoke a sense of "solemnity" which "is an attribute of the sublime." Officers and enlisted men were buried alongside one another to symbolize the egalitarian nature of the Union Army, which consisted mostly of volunteer citizen soldiers.[6]

Reinterments

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Union remains were transferred from the Gettysburg Battlefield burial plots,[7] local church cemeteries, field hospital burial sites, including Camp Letterman, Rock Creek-White Run Union Hospital Complex, USA General Hospital,[8] and the "Valley of Death" below Little Round Top, where unburied soldiers decomposed in place.[9] Samuel Weaver, as "Superintendent of the exhuming of the bodies", personally observed the contractor's workers opening graves, placing remains in coffins, and burying them in the cemetery,[8]: 158  and at least one reinterment from neighboring Evergreen Cemetery.

Gettysburg National Cemetery on the 50th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1913

Consecration

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Main article: Consecration of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg
President Lincoln (seated, left of center) at the cemetery's consecration on November 19, 1863, several hours before he delivered his famed Gettysburg Address
An 1863 map of Soldiers' National Cemetery
  • Granite bands mark the graves of unknown soldiers.
    Granite bands mark the graves of unknown soldiers.
  • National Cemetery rostrum (1879)
    National Cemetery rostrum (1879)
  • 1st Minnesota Infantry Memorial Urn (1867), first battlefield monument installed in the national cemetery
    1st Minnesota Infantry Memorial Urn (1867), first battlefield monument installed in the national cemetery
  • Major-General John F. Reynolds (1872) by John Quincy Adams Ward
    Major-General John F. Reynolds (1872) by John Quincy Adams Ward
  • New York State Monument (1893)
    New York State Monument (1893)
  • Lincoln Address Memorial (1912)
    Lincoln Address Memorial (1912)
  • Kentucky State Monument (1975)
    Kentucky State Monument (1975)
  • The cemetery's south end contains graves of soldiers from more recent wars. The back of the Lincoln Address Memorial is at upper left.
    The cemetery's south end contains graves of soldiers from more recent wars. The back of the Lincoln Address Memorial is at upper left.

Chronology

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For grouping the table's listings for reinterments, see the interment icon (†) at the top of the table and use the sort icon.
Chronology
Date Event
Symbols: †-interments  ۩-structures  §-superintendents
1863-07-01 Union artillery in the summit's cornfield[10] at the subsequent cemetery site counterfired on Confederates west of Gettysburg at the seminary and railway cut.[11] On July 2, Confederate sharpshooters in Gettysburg were "picking off" Federals on the hill.[12]
1863-07-04 8,900 dead soldiers were on the battlefield,[13] and townspeople and farmers buried some of them at battlefield sites (e.g., along fences and stone walls).[14]
1863-07-07 The local Provost Marshal solicited "Men, Horses, and Wagons…to bury the dead" in various Gettysburg Battlefield plots.[15]
1863-07-10 The last "Rebel dead" were interred on the battlefield (horse carcasses remained to be buried).[16]
[when?] Battlefield land preservation began by August 5[17] with attorney David McConaughy's purchases including "the heights of Cemetery Hill"[18] which he planned for a soldiers' cemetery where lots could be purchased for reinterring soldiers.
1863-07-20 "Peter Thorn", [sic] who was deployed from Gettysburg in a combat unit, began weekly newspaper ads for "removals into Ever Green Cemetery".[19]
1863-07-24 David Wills, a Gettysburg attorney, recommended a state-funded cemetery at the south slope of East Cemetery Hill "on the Baltimore turnpike, opposite the Cemetery"[20]: 4 —the open, sloped tract of 8 acres (3.2 ha)[21] was sold by Peter Thorn in 1899.[22]
1863-07-28 State funds regarding "Pennsylvanians killed [were for] furnishing transportation for the body and one attendant" to home cemeteries[23] (600–700 coffins were used.)[24]
1863-08-14 Wills, after being designated Pennsylvania Governor Andrew Curtin's agent, purchased McConaughy's summit tract and a day or so later[who?] a 2nd tract "between Evergreen and the five-acre tract of Miller's apple orchard"[20]: 6  totalling 17 acres (6.9 ha) for $2,475.87[25] ($64,740 in 2025 dollars).
1863-08-21 Wills had contacted William Saunders about designing the cemetery.[26]
1863 The reinterment contract was issued and required wooden boards nailed to the head of the coffins to protrude from the ground for displaying identities.[27]
1863-10-17 † In a former cornfield of the battle,[28] the first reinterments (Cpl Story & Pvt James) were from the 1804 "United Presbyterian Burying Ground".[8]: 140  The "Associate Reformed Graveyard" closed in 1899[29] (at least five others are identified as reinterred from that graveyard.)
1863-11-16 ۩ A flagpole[30] was erected "near the stand prepared for the world-renowned Orator, Hon. Edward Everett".[31] The 12 ft × 20 ft (3.7 m × 6.1 m)[32] "platform" was "on the spot where the monument is to be built[1]…"fronting away from the cemetery [toward the subsequent] vast audience" (in Evergreen Cemetery).[33]
1863-11 Joseph Becker sketched the flagpole, the "grand stand"[34] ("speaker will face this way"), and East Cemetery Hill graves.[7]
1863-11-19 ¶ President Abraham Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address after the Everett oration at the Consecration of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg.
1863-11-24 † 1188 remains, including 582 unknown, "had already been interred in the Cemetery".[14]
1863-12-07 Wills advertised for farmers to report graves on their property.[35]
1863-12-17 The Board of Commissioners of the Soldiers' National Cemetery at Gettysburg was organized at Harrisburg and incorporated on March 25, 1864.[36][37][38]
1864-02-03 Michigan appropriated the first payment from a state for the cemetery. By the federal turnover in 1872, 18 states had contributed $129,523.24.[20]: 26 
[when?] The "city of Boston" exhumed 158 soldiers' remains for reinterment in Massachusetts.[8]: 161 
1864-03-19 † Samuel Weaver reported 3,512 total Union bodies "taken up and removed to the Soldiers' National Cemetery" October 27-March 18.[8]: 161 
1864-03-21 † Wills identified the cemetery had 3,564 total burials, including those buried directly in the cemetery (not exhumed)[8]: 175  (e.g., Major George Tate's leg amputated at a hospital was buried in the cemetery which he annually visited from Massachusetts.)[39]
1864-12 † 37 more bodies had been located and reinterred, the stone walls had been completed (the lodge nearly so), and the "main avenue" was "ready for macadamizing".[20]
1865 Wills had iron fencing erected between the Soldiers' and Evergreen cemeteries[40] contrary to the condition when Pennsylvania purchased McConaughy's tract.[17]
1865-03-06 ۩ The cemetery's 3 stone walls[41] and the brick "gate house" (lodge) were complete, and the gate was ready to be erected.[8]
1865-05 § Daniel K. Snyder was appointed the cemetery superintendent, and was replaced in November by Sgt John McAllister.[20]: 21 
1865 ۩ The wooden marker boards for each grave were replaced with gravestones[42] (the CCC reset gravestones into concrete in 1934).[43]
[specify] † A Union soldier buried July 5, 1863, at South Mountain's Monterey toll house was reinterred at the cemetery (his wife visited both sites for the 1913 reunion).[44]
1865-07-04 ۩ The "Exercises Incidental to the Laying of the Corner Stone" for the Soldiers' National Monument were conducted[45] after designs had been requested in 1864.[46]: 35 
1867-06-19 To plan the transfer to the federal government, the "Board of Managers" appointed a committee[47] (Blake, Carr, Ferry, Hebard, McCurdy, Selleck, and Wills).[48]
1867-06-20 The Committee of Arrangement of the Board of Commissioners of the National Cemetery met Governor Geary, who with General Grant visited the cemetery.[48]
1867 ۩ The marble urn in the National Cemetery was dedicated to the 1st Minnesota Infantry.[49]
1869-07-01 ۩ The Soldiers' National Monument was dedicated[38] after the crowning statue of the Genius of Liberty had arrived in October 1868.[50] On August 26, the "Plenty" statue was added to the monument,[51] and the "Peace" statue was added between[specify] August 30, 1869,[52] and September 21, 1887.[2]
c. 1870 ۩ The 2nd floor of the stone "gatehouse" (Greek Revival architecture) was expanded with a Mansard roof.[53]
1870-07-14 "A Resolution Authorizing the Secretary of War to take charge of the Gettysburg and Antietam National Cemeteries" passed.[54]
1871-07-22 The commissioners met ""to close up the business of the Board preparatory to its transfer to the National Government".[55]
1872-05-01 Pennsylvania ceded the cemetery to the Department of War[46] (the board of commissioners expired.)[56]
1872-08 § Charles Stambaugh became the superintendent until July 1873.[20]: 26 
1872-08-31 ۩ The Reynolds statue cast from bronze cannon tubes[20]: 25  (Robert Wood & Co. foundry, J. Q. A. Ward design) was erected on a dark Quincy granite pedestal.[45]: 17 
1878-10 ۩ 50 new iron settees were placed in the cemetery.[57]
1879-05 ۩ The 1st rostrum of 20 ft × 40 ft (6.1 m × 12.2 m) was being completed by P. J. and J. J. Tawney,[58] with 12 brick columns and a 5-foot-high (1.5 m) high floor.[59] In addition to Decoration and Dedication days' observances, the building was used during military camps (e.g.,1882 Camp Burnside)[60] and 1890 Camp Abe Patterson).[61]
1881-06 † 20 skeletons plowed up on the Gelback Farm along the Emmitsburg Road were reinterred.[62]
1882 ۩ 17 tablets were erected to display stanzas of Bivouac of the Dead (only 8 remain).[4]
1882-05-10 † During Grand Central Avenue (now Hancock Avenue) construction, remains of a US soldier found on the Leister Farm were interred in the Cemetery.[63]
1884-11-08 † First and only African-American veteran of the Civil War, Henry Gooden of the 127th Regiment United States Colored Troops, is buried among U.S. Regulars in the Civil War section.
1887-10-01 § Battlefield guide[64] and assistant superintendent William Holtzworth replaced Supt. Nicholas G. Wilson who resigned to become the GBMA superintendent.[63]
1889 † Remains found during avenue construction were reinterred in the cemetery,[65] and the cemetery gate to the Taneytown Road was planned.[66]
1889-09 Joseph H. Smith constructed the "grand stand…for use on Thursday, Pennsylvania Day – on the large lawn in front of the rostrum".[66]
1890 ۩ Two "Act of Congress Tablets" were placed in the cemetery to commemorate[4] the February 22, 1867 "act to establish and perfect National Cemeteries"[67] (the congressional reburial program had been resolved on April 13, 1866).[68]
1891-02 ۩ The cemetery's Taneytown Road (west) entrance was built at the summit curve of the Gettysburg Electric Railway.[69]
1891 § Calvin Hamilton[70] resigned as[71] local school board president[72] and became the cemetery superintendent after 2 years as assistant to W. D. Holtzworth.[73]
1892 ۩ William H. Tipton photographed the cemetery's summer house[53] near the west gate.
1893-07-02 ۩ After an October 1890 objection by Wills had been resolved, the Ionic[56] New York State Monument[4] was unveiled[74] with the "statue of “Victory” in the presence of at least 12,000 persons".[75] The ceremony concluded with an artillery salute by Battery C.[76]
1899 † Remains found at the United Presbyterian Cemetery during construction of the shirt factory were reinterred in the cemetery.[29]
1899-09-23 † Remains of 18 soldiers found on Culp's Hill were reinterred in the cemetery.[77]
1900 † Remains found by fence builders on a farm were reinterred in the cemetery.[78]
1903 ۩ A larger Gettysburg Rostrum was built[79] 36.8 ft × 22 ft (11.2 m × 6.7 m) with a sod platform[4] to replace the original 1879 rostrum.
1904-05-30 ¶ President Theodore Roosevelt delivered the Decoration Day address[80] after detraining near the McPherson Ridge railway cut.[81]
1905 The lodge at the Baltimore Pike entrance was dismantled[82] (teacher Ruth Hamilton at the High Street School had lived at the lodge).[83]
1906 ۩ $6000 was appropriated for a new lodge for the superintendent[84] (Wm. H. Johns was the contractor).[85]
1908 First placement of memorial flags on graves.[86]
1912-01-24 ۩ The Lincoln Address Memorial was erected on the cemetery grounds "near site of original summer house".[4]
[specify] "A 205' macadam roadway [was] graded and piked around the Lincoln Memorial in 1909 [sic]."[26]
1914-04 § Major M. M. Jefferys succeeded Calvin Hamilton as superintendent[87][88] and the Jefferys family moved into the lodge.[89]
1915-05 The "Three-Mile Picture Show" named for the length of film recorded wreath-laying at the Lincoln Address Memorial by local "colored residents".[90][91]
1915-05-06 † Remains of a soldier discovered at Menchey's Spring on the base of East Cemetery Hill were reinterred in the cemetery.[91][92]
1915-05 § Acting superintendent Harry E. Koch replaced[93] Major Jefferys who resigned during illness while at "Johns Hopkins hospital".[91]
1915-09 § Superintendent Austin. J. Chapman (1915 to 1918)[94] prohibited hackmans' jitneys from carrying more than 15 persons into the cemetery.[95]
1928 ¶ President Calvin Coolidge delivered the Memorial Day address in the rostrum.[96]
1928-09 ۩ The brick comfort station at the cemetery opened.[97] It was closed in 1931.[98] (The 1st Gettysburg Parkitecture comfort station was built in 1933.)[99]
1930 ¶ President Herbert Hoover delivered the Memorial Day address at the rostrum that had been temporarily extended by Army Quartermasters.[100]
1930-08-31 § James W. Bodley retired after serving as superintendent since 1918.[101]
1933-06-10 Executive Order 6166 combined management of the cemetery and military park with the Department of the Interior[20]: viii  (Nine other cemeteries were transferred on July 28.)[68]
1933 ۩ Lafayette Square fencing was moved to the cemetery[102] after 1888 legislation had moved it[58] to East Cemetery Hill in 1889[103] (installed by Calvin Gilbert).[63]
1936 † A U.S. Colored Infantry soldier who died after the Civil War was reinterred from Yellow Hill Cemetery (Biglerville) into the cemetery.[104]
1938 The National Park Service planted 200 rhododendron plants in the cemetery.[40]
1942 § Captain Earl Taute was the cemetery superintendent.[105]
1947/48 † 850 World War II dead were reinterred "from European and South Pacific theaters".[106]
1949 Federal appropriations of $10,000 was planned to add 5 acres (2.0 ha) to the cemetery.[107]
1955 ۩ The American Legion Tablet was placed in the cemetery to honor the "efforts of American fighting forces in preservation of freedom of all men."[4]
1955 The Oscar-nominated The Battle of Gettysburg documentary filmed the cemetery.
1963 ¶ President Dwight D. Eisenhower was a dignitary in the Remembrance Day activities at the cemetery.
1963-11-19 Bethlehem Steel deeded 5 acres (2.0 ha) "to enlarge the present cemetery"[108][109] during a luncheon for the Lincoln Fellowship's 25th anniversary.[110]
1967-04-15 A design for the annex between the north wall of the cemetery and Steinwehr Avenue had plans for 1666 graves.[111]
1968-02 † The first burial was completed at the annex (a 22-car parking lot had been contracted on January 23, 1968).[112]
[when?] † The last interment was made in the original cemetery area[112] (closed October 27, 1972, except for spouse interments).
1972 The last formal speaker for a Decoration Day ceremony at the cemetery was in the rostrum.[113]
1976–08 The National Park Service acquired the 4th of 6 houses along Steinwehr Avenue east of the Taneytown Road for the cemetery annex.[114]
1980 ۩ The cemetery's 1864 stone walls were reconstructed.[115]
1993-08-21 ۩ The Friend to Friend Masonic Memorial in the annex was dedicated by the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania.
1997-07-01 † Remains of a soldier discovered in 1996[116] during Seminary Ridge excavation[117] were interred in the cemetery.[118]

References

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Further reading

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Gettysburg National Cemetery

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Gettysburg National Cemetery is a United States national cemetery situated adjacent to the Gettysburg Battlefield in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, established in the aftermath of the July 1863 Battle of Gettysburg to inter Union soldiers who perished in the engagement.[1] The cemetery was dedicated on November 19, 1863, an event at which President Abraham Lincoln delivered his renowned Gettysburg Address, emphasizing national unity and the sacrifices made for democratic principles.[1] Originally known as the Soldiers' National Cemetery, it was created by the state of Pennsylvania to organize and honor the dead amid the chaotic battlefield burials, with initial efforts led by local citizens and governors to consolidate remains from hasty graves.[2] The cemetery encompasses over 20 acres arranged in a semicircular pattern around a central monument, with graves oriented toward the battlefield to symbolize eternal vigilance, housing more than 6,000 interments including over 3,500 Union soldiers from the Civil War, of whom 979 remain unidentified due to the battle's ferocity and decomposition challenges.[1][3] Federal oversight began in 1872, integrating it into the national cemetery system under the Department of War before transfer to the National Park Service, and it continued accepting burials from later conflicts such as World War II up to its general closure in 1972, though limited exceptions persist for eligible veterans.[3][4] Notable features include state monuments, the rostrum from which Lincoln spoke, and memorials like the Lincoln Address Memorial, underscoring its role not only as a repository for the fallen but as a pivotal site in American commemorative history, distinct from the adjacent Evergreen Cemetery which holds some Confederate remains.[2][1]

Physical Description and Layout

Site Features and Boundaries

Gettysburg National Cemetery occupies an irregular boundary within Gettysburg National Military Park, delineated by Steinwehr Avenue (U.S. 15 Business, also known as Emmitsburg Road) to the north, Baltimore Street to the east, the adjacent Evergreen Cemetery along the east and south, and Taneytown Road to the west.[5] The site encompasses 21.8 acres in total, comprising the original 17 acres acquired in 1863 for initial burials and a 5-acre annex added between 1968 and 1993 for later interments.[5] [6] The cemetery is situated on Cemetery Hill at an elevation of approximately 620 feet, forming the northern terminus of Cemetery Ridge, with terrain featuring a subtle rise toward the center and open lawns interspersed with burial areas.[5] Enclosures include a perimeter iron fence installed in 1934, sourced from Lafayette Square in Washington, D.C., which replaced earlier boundaries; original stone walls and low pipe-rail fences along parts of the Evergreen Cemetery edge were later augmented with taller iron fencing.[5] Gates at Baltimore Street and Taneytown Road, originally ornate, were simplified following road widenings.[5] Key site features encompass winding drives designed in a naturalistic style by landscape architect William Saunders, radial paths leading to a central semi-circular burial arrangement in the original section, and specimen trees such as Norway spruce along the perimeter and deciduous groves within.[5] The annex adopts a more formal lawn-style layout with its own semi-circular burial area and central monument, reflecting mid-20th-century national cemetery standards.[5] These elements contribute to a protected historic landscape emphasizing seclusion and commemoration, with subtle modifications from regrading efforts in 1935 that leveled earlier mounded earth from wartime interments.[5]

Grave Arrangement and Sections

The original Civil War burials in Gettysburg National Cemetery occupy a central semi-circular area, with graves arranged in concentric rows radiating outward from the Soldiers' National Monument at the core.[7] This layout, devised by landscape architect William Saunders in 1863, organizes interments primarily by state of origin and military corps affiliation, positioning sections for smaller states closer to the monument while placing those for larger states along the outer perimeter.[8] The design encompasses approximately 3,500 Union soldiers from the Battle of Gettysburg, including 979 unknowns, with headstones laid flat to evoke a sense of equality in death.[3] Grave markers consist of three principal types: larger granite blocks delineating state sections, smaller individual tablets engraved with the soldier's name, rank, company, regiment, and state (where identified), and plain stones for unknowns inscribed simply as "Unknown" or with sequential numbers.[4] Sections are typically lettered or numbered, such as Pennsylvania in Section A or New York in Section B, facilitating location via rosters that list graves sequentially within each plot—starting from section markers and counting along rows toward the monument.[9] Adjoining the original semi-circle are peripheral sections dedicated to veterans of subsequent conflicts, including the Spanish-American War, World War I, World War II (with 590 burials), the Korean War, and the Vietnam War.[1][10] These extensions, located primarily toward the cemetery's southern boundary, maintain uniform headstone styles compliant with later national cemetery standards but diverge from the state-grouped Civil War pattern, instead following chronological or service-branch organization.[2] The full site now holds over 6,000 interments, underscoring its evolution from a Gettysburg-specific repository to a broader national military necropolis.[1]

Historical Establishment

Post-Battle Burial Crisis

Following the cessation of hostilities on July 3, 1863, an estimated 7,000 soldiers—approximately 3,155 Union and 4,700 Confederate—lay dead across the Gettysburg battlefield, alongside thousands of slain horses.[11][12] An informal armistice on July 4 enabled burial parties, primarily from Union forces, to inter both sides' remains in shallow, often unmarked trenches, with initial efforts extending from dusk until midnight.[13] The sheer volume, however, rendered the task incomplete, leaving many bodies exposed or hastily covered without regard for identification or separation by affiliation.[3] Summer temperatures hastened decomposition, causing corpses to bloat, rupture, and emit overpowering odors that blanketed the area, raising acute fears of epidemics such as cholera among residents and lingering troops.[14] Torrential rains soon after the battle inundated shallow graves, eroding earth and exposing remains, while scavenging animals like hogs rooted up sites, further desecrating the dead.[8][15] By mid-July, advanced putrefaction in some cases precluded direct handling, necessitating aids such as fence posts to maneuver bloated forms into adjacent pits.[13] The resulting sanitary emergency and moral outrage overwhelmed local resources, compelling intervention from state authorities; Pennsylvania Governor Andrew G. Curtin arrived at Gettysburg soon after the battle, surveying the devastation of ruined properties, overwhelmed field hospitals, and proliferating shallow burials.[2] Curtin's observations underscored the inadequacy of battlefield interments for Union soldiers, spurring his administration to commission a permanent repository—initially through agent David Wills—to consolidate and honor the fallen, thereby averting ongoing health hazards and providing dignified reinterment.[16] This initiative addressed the crisis by prioritizing Union dead, whose remains numbered over 3,500 for eventual relocation, while Confederate burials remained largely in transient trenches or local plots.[17]

Site Selection and Acquisition

Following the Battle of Gettysburg from July 1 to 3, 1863, Pennsylvania Governor Andrew Gregg Curtin visited the battlefield and observed the inadequate shallow burials of Union soldiers, which were being exposed by rainfall and posing health risks.[2] On July 24, 1863, Curtin appointed Gettysburg attorney David Wills as his agent to acquire land for a dedicated cemetery to consolidate and properly inter the approximately 3,600 Union dead scattered across the fields.[2] [3] Wills selected the eastern slope of Cemetery Hill, a prominent high-ground position central to the Union defensive lines during the battle and adjacent to the private Evergreen Cemetery.[3] This location was chosen for its strategic significance in repelling Confederate assaults, its visibility over the fields targeted by Pickett's Charge on July 3, and its suitability for a dignified, accessible memorial site that honored the fallen without encroaching on existing private burials.[3] [18] By early August 1863, Wills had secured approximately 17 acres through purchases from private landowners, funded initially by the state of Pennsylvania, with the tract designed to accommodate semi-circular arrangements of graves by state.[3] [2] To refine the layout, Wills consulted landscape architect William Saunders, who advised acquiring an additional five acres to ensure adequate space for burials and a central monument, expanding the site accordingly.[19] The acquisition process proceeded rapidly amid the post-battle crisis, prioritizing Union remains exclusively, as Confederate dead were left to Southern states or local handling.[3] This state-led initiative laid the foundation for federal oversight, with the cemetery later incorporated into the national system.[2]

Reinterment Operations

Exhumation and Relocation Process

David Wills, appointed by Pennsylvania Governor Andrew G. Curtin as the agent for establishing the cemetery, coordinated the exhumation efforts by soliciting bids from contractors and hiring Samuel Weaver, a local justice of the peace and photographer, to superintend the process of disinterment, identification, and reinterment.[20] Weaver's role involved personally supervising workers to ensure bodies were properly exhumed from temporary battlefield graves, examined for identification markers such as uniform buttons or clothing remnants, and placed into wooden coffins before transport to the cemetery site.[20] [3] Exhumations commenced on October 27, 1863, after an initial attempt in August was halted due to advanced decomposition in the summer heat, and continued until March 18, 1864, with contractors like Frederick Biesecker's team and local laborers, including African Americans, handling the physical disinterment at a rate not exceeding 100 bodies per day to maintain order and respect.[20] Each exhumed body was coffined on-site, with any personal effects—totaling 287 packages such as letters, photographs, or money—cataloged and stored for potential claims by relatives, reflecting Weaver's meticulous documentation to aid identification amid the chaos of hasty post-battle burials.[20] [3] The relocated remains, exclusively those of Union soldiers numbering 3,354 in total (of which 979 could not be identified by name, unit, or state), were transported by wagon to the 17-acre cemetery plot adjacent to Evergreen Cemetery and reburied in semi-circular sections arranged by state affiliation, centering on a planned monument site as designed by landscape architect William Saunders.[20] [3] This structured relocation prioritized Union dead only, leaving Confederate remains in their original battlefield graves or subject to later private exhumations funded by Southern states, underscoring the cemetery's establishment as a federal honor for Northern casualties.[20] Challenges included the difficulty of distinguishing fragmented remains and verifying identities without reliable records, compounded by the passage of months since the July 1–3, 1863, battle, which Weaver addressed through on-site inspections and record-keeping.[20]

Identification Challenges and Unknowns

Initial battlefield burials following the Battle of Gettysburg, conducted hastily amid decomposition and chaos from July 1–3, 1863, often lacked identification markers, complicating later reinterment efforts. Soldiers were interred in shallow trenches or individual graves without systematic recording of names, units, or locations, as burial parties prioritized speed over documentation amid the summer heat accelerating decay.[21][3] Reinterment teams, operating from 1863 into 1864 under the oversight of the United States Christian Commission and state agents, encountered severe obstacles including fragmented skeletons, eroded wooden headboards, and vanished personal effects like letters or photographs that might have aided identification. Mass graves yielded multiple commingled remains, while individual sites revealed only uniform buttons or belt buckles suggesting state affiliation but rarely personal identity. Efforts to match exhumed bodies against missing soldiers' rolls proved unreliable due to incomplete wartime records and the absence of standardized identification like dog tags.[22][21] Consequently, of the approximately 3,512 Civil War interments in the cemetery, 979 soldiers remain unidentified, buried in designated "Unknown" sections arranged by inferred state based on artifacts when possible. Some were named but unassigned to a state, marked simply as "UNKNOWN" with numerical designations on headstones. These unknowns, presumed Union based on burial context, highlight the era's limitations in forensic recovery, with granite bands later distinguishing their graves.[7][3]

Dedication Ceremony

Planning and Key Participants

David Wills, a Gettysburg attorney appointed by Pennsylvania Governor Andrew Gregg Curtin as the state's agent for battlefield burials, spearheaded the planning for the cemetery's dedication to consecrate the grounds amid ongoing reinterments.[2] As president of the Soldiers' National Cemetery Association, Wills coordinated logistics, including site preparation on the partially completed grounds and arrangements for a large procession and platform for speakers, drawing from funds disbursed by participating states.[23] The event was scheduled for November 19, 1863, after a postponement from October to allow principal orator Edward Everett sufficient preparation time for his address.[24] Wills personally invited Edward Everett, a former U.S. Secretary of State, ambassador to Britain, and Harvard president renowned for his oratorical prowess, to deliver the main two-hour speech honoring the Union dead.[25] Complementing this, Wills wrote to President Abraham Lincoln on November 2, 1863, requesting "a few appropriate remarks" to formally dedicate the cemetery, positioning Lincoln as a secondary speaker.[26] The ceremony featured prominent participants beyond the speakers, including Governor Curtin, representatives from 18 states funding the cemetery, and Major General George G. Meade, who led the grand procession of military units, clergy, and civilians estimated at 15,000 to 20,000 attendees.[27] Music was provided by Birgwa's Band of Philadelphia and the U.S. Marine Band, with Reverend Franklin B. Hummer offering the opening prayer.[3]

Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address

Abraham Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address on November 19, 1863, as the concluding remarks at the dedication ceremony for the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.[28] The invitation came from David Wills, a Gettysburg attorney appointed as the Pennsylvania state agent overseeing the cemetery's establishment, who formally requested Lincoln's participation in a letter dated November 2, 1863.[29] Lincoln arrived in Gettysburg the previous evening, staying at Wills's home, and revised his speech before speaking from a wooden platform on the cemetery grounds after Edward Everett's two-hour oration.[8] The address, lasting approximately two minutes, articulated the Civil War's stakes in preserving the Union and the sacrifices of soldiers, emphasizing democratic principles. Lincoln's text, as delivered, reads:
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate—we can not consecrate—we can not hallow—this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.[30]
Contemporary newspaper accounts reported the speech with minor variations, reflecting its oral delivery without a fixed manuscript used on the platform.[28] Initial reception was subdued; Everett praised it in a note to Lincoln the next day, calling it "a perfect gem," but many attendees and reports focused on Everett's address as the principal feature, with Lincoln's remarks viewed as succinct dedicatory comments rather than the event's centerpiece.[31] Over time, the address gained prominence for reframing the war's purpose around equality and national renewal, influencing its enduring legacy at the cemetery site.[32]

Monuments and Memorial Features

Soldiers' National Monument

The Soldiers' National Monument stands at the central point of Gettysburg National Cemetery, serving as the primary memorial to the Union soldiers interred there following the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863.[33] Rising approximately 44 feet, it symbolizes the collective sacrifice of the fallen and the preservation of the Union, positioned near the site where President Abraham Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg Address during the cemetery's dedication on November 19, 1863.[34] The monument's design emphasizes themes of valor, remembrance, and national renewal, reflecting post-war efforts to honor the dead without individual glorification. Designed by James G. Batterson, a Connecticut-based architect and sculptor, the monument features allegorical marble figures sculpted by Randolph Rogers, a prominent American artist known for classical works.[34] [35] Construction began with the laying of the cornerstone on July 4, 1865, funded through contributions from states and the federal government as part of the cemetery's development under landscape architect William Saunders' semicircular plan.[36] The structure includes a granite pedestal supporting four statues at its base—representing War, History (depicted as Clio with a tablet and stylus), Peace, and Plenty—crowned by a figure of the Genius of Liberty holding a wreath and sword.[33] [37] These elements underscore the transition from conflict to prosperity, with War facing southward toward the battlefield. The monument was formally dedicated on July 1, 1869, four years after construction commenced and six years after the battle, coinciding with the anniversary of the engagement's first day.[36] The ceremony drew veterans and officials, reinforcing the site's role in shaping Civil War memory through collective commemoration rather than partisan division.[34] Over time, it has endured as the cemetery's focal point, with periodic maintenance addressing weathering on the marble figures, preserving its status as a testament to the 3,577 Union burials, including nearly 1,000 unknowns, established in the cemetery by 1870.[33]

Lincoln Address Memorial and Other Markers

The Lincoln Address Memorial, dedicated in 1912 near the southern entrance of Gettysburg National Cemetery, commemorates the platform from which President Abraham Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address on November 19, 1863.[38][32] It consists of a bronze bust of Lincoln sculpted by Henry Bush-Brown, mounted atop a granite base, with flanking bronze tablets: one engraved with the full text of the Address and the other with Lincoln's October 1863 letter accepting the invitation to speak at the dedication.[32] This structure stands as one of the few memorials globally dedicated to honoring a speech itself rather than a battle, leader, or structure.[1] The memorial's placement within the cemetery reflects the traditional site of the dedication rostrum, though subsequent historical research indicates Lincoln likely spoke approximately 300 yards northward along the upper Cemetery Drive, outside the initial 17-acre cemetery bounds established in 1863.[39] Despite this discrepancy, the monument serves as a focal point for reflection on Lincoln's words, which emphasized national rededication amid the Civil War's casualties.[32] Other markers in the cemetery include state section indicators, typically larger grey granite stones positioned at the head of each state's burial plot, inscribed with the state name and the exact number of interred soldiers from that state—such as 979 for Pennsylvania and 72 for Rhode Island—facilitating organized navigation and commemoration of regional contributions.[7][4] These markers, installed during the cemetery's early development, underscore the Union forces' diverse origins among the approximately 3,577 Civil War burials.[1] Dispersed throughout the grounds are multiple cast-iron plaques bearing stanzas from Theodore O'Hara's 1847 poem "Bivouac of the Dead," originally composed for Mexican-American War dead but adapted for Civil War national cemeteries to evoke the eternal rest of fallen soldiers.[7][40] Installed progressively from the late 19th century, these plaques—featuring lines like "On Fame's eternal camping-ground / Their silent tents are spread"—reinforce themes of sacrifice and guardianship over the graves.[1] Early regimental markers, such as the 1867 urn memorial to the 1st Minnesota Infantry—the first battlefield monument erected in the cemetery—and similar tributes to units like the 1st Massachusetts Battery, provide additional site-specific remembrances of participating regiments, often funded by veterans' associations and placed between 1867 and 1912.[5][1] These elements collectively enhance the cemetery's role as a preserved landscape of Civil War memory, distinct from the broader battlefield's extensive monument array.

Post-Civil War Developments

Burials from Subsequent Conflicts

Gettysburg National Cemetery accepted burials from American conflicts after the Civil War, starting with the Spanish-American War in 1898 and continuing through the 20th century.[38] Additional sections were established to accommodate veterans from World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War.[41] The cemetery inters 590 servicemen who died during World War II, including soldiers, sailors, airmen, Marines, and other enlisted personnel.[10] These burials reflect the site's evolving role as a resting place for U.S. military dead beyond the Gettysburg campaign.[42] Expansions in the 1950s and 1960s addressed space constraints amid the Korean and Vietnam Wars, with the southern annex ultimately containing 2,177 graves associated with World War II, Korea, and Vietnam, including casualties, veterans, and dependents.[41][5] This development integrated modern conflict commemorations into the cemetery's Civil War-focused landscape while prioritizing active-duty and veteran eligibility under national cemetery policies.[5]

Expansion Efforts and Annex Addition

The original Soldiers' National Cemetery, spanning 17 acres and completed by 1869 under landscape architect William Saunders' semicircular design, initially interred approximately 3,620 Union soldiers from the Civil War.[5] To accommodate veterans from later conflicts, the War Department initiated expansions post-1893, adding Sections I through VIII along the cemetery's perimeters, which provided 1,596 graves primarily for casualties of the Spanish-American War and World War I.[5] Further sections were incorporated between 1898 and 1968 to bury servicemen from World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War, reflecting the federal government's ongoing commitment to national burial grounds amid evolving military engagements.[8] By the mid-20th century, space constraints necessitated a distinct annex addition, established starting in 1968 and fully developed by 1993 as a 5-acre extension adjoining the north boundary of the original site, within the broader 21.8-acre cemetery grounds bordered by Steinwehr Avenue.[5][8] Designed in a modern lawn-style format by National Park Service landscape architect Glen Caldaro and JWF Architects of Harrisburg, the annex features a semi-circular burial field, central monument, entrance gateway, plaza, and uniform government-issued markers, prioritizing functionality over the historic granite curbs of the core cemetery.[5] This addition houses 2,177 interments, mainly from World War II, Korea, and Vietnam, enabling continued eligibility for eligible veterans and dependents while preserving the integrity of the Civil War-era landscape.[5][43] Interments in the annex and expanded sections slowed after 1972, restricted to pre-reserved plots, as national cemetery policies shifted toward newer facilities for active-duty burials; today, the full cemetery exceeds 6,000 graves, underscoring adaptive preservation efforts amid static original boundaries.[5][8]

Administration and Maintenance

Transfer to Federal Oversight

The Soldiers' National Cemetery, established in 1863 under the auspices of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania through a board of commissioners, initially operated as a state-managed entity despite interring Union soldiers from multiple states.[2] This arrangement reflected the cemetery's origins in local initiative following the Battle of Gettysburg, but raised questions of long-term sustainability and national scope, as Pennsylvania bore the financial and administrative burden for graves of non-residents.[2] Legislative momentum for federal assumption of control built post-war amid broader efforts to standardize care for Union dead. On April 14, 1868, the Pennsylvania General Assembly enacted a law authorizing the transfer of the cemetery's management, lands, and liabilities to the United States government upon completion of construction and settlement of accounts.[44] This addressed fiscal strains on the state and aligned with federal precedents for national cemeteries established under acts like the 1867 extension of Arlington oversight.[45] The transfer formalized on May 1, 1872, after the cemetery's infrastructure, including boundary walls and initial monuments, was substantially complete and debts cleared.[46] At that point, the federal government assumed full administrative oversight, reclassifying it as a national cemetery under the Department of War, which handled perpetual care and expansions.[8] This shift ensured uniform federal standards for maintenance and burials, preventing disparate state-level neglect observed in some early post-war sites.[47]

Preservation Challenges and Efforts

The preservation of Gettysburg National Cemetery faces ongoing challenges from environmental factors, including weathering and erosion that degrade marble and granite headstones and monuments exposed to Pennsylvania's freeze-thaw cycles and precipitation. Vegetation overgrowth, particularly evergreen shrubs in the Civil War burial sections, has obscured the site's historic open, semi-circular layout, altering its visual and interpretive integrity. Structural issues in monuments, such as cracking from material defects and joint deterioration, compound these problems, while visitor foot traffic contributes to soil compaction around graves.[5][48][49] Maintenance efforts are coordinated by the National Park Service (NPS), which conducts cyclic preservation every 3 to 5 years, involving cleaning of bronze and stone surfaces, mortar repointing, and vegetation removal to restore historic sightlines and landscapes. The Gettysburg Foundation partners with NPS to fund and execute targeted rehabilitations, addressing over 1,700 battlefield features including cemetery monuments through inspections for vandalism, accidents, and erosion-induced defects. Specific projects include rehabilitating Cemetery Ridge adjacent to the cemetery, where excavation reestablishes period ravines and mitigates erosion, ensuring the site's topographic authenticity.[50][51][48][52] These initiatives emphasize returning the cemetery to its 1863 appearance, countering post-war alterations like tree plantings that impeded battlefield visibility, though public communication challenges persist in justifying removals of non-historic elements. Funding from federal appropriations and private donations supports these works, prioritizing high-traffic areas to balance accessibility with conservation.[49][53]

Significance and Interpretations

Symbolic Role in Civil War Memory

The Gettysburg National Cemetery, dedicated on November 19, 1863, serves as a profound symbol of Union sacrifice during the American Civil War, embodying the resolve to preserve the nation amid profound loss.[1] At the dedication ceremony, President Abraham Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address, a 272-word speech that reframed the conflict not merely as a defense of territorial integrity but as a test of democratic principles, invoking the "last full measure of devotion" by soldiers to ensure "that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth."[3] [54] This address, delivered after Edward Everett's longer oration, elevated the cemetery from a mere burial ground to a site of national introspection on equality, freedom, and unfinished national work.[3] The cemetery's layout, designed by William Saunders with graves arranged in a semi-circular pattern by state surrounding a central monument, visually reinforces themes of unity and collective sacrifice, distinguishing Union dead—over 3,500 from the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863), including 979 unknowns—from Confederate casualties initially left unburied or reinterred elsewhere.[3] This arrangement underscores the cemetery's role as hallowed ground dedicated exclusively to federal forces, symbolizing the moral and martial legitimacy of the Union cause against secession.[1] By interring soldiers regardless of rank in egalitarian rows, it projected an ideal of democratic equality in death, mirroring Lincoln's emphasis on a "new birth of freedom" rooted in the Declaration of Independence.[3] In Civil War memory, the cemetery has endured as a cornerstone of American commemoration, influencing narratives of heroism and national renewal while prioritizing empirical remembrance of Union valor over postwar reconciliation motifs that sometimes obscured the conflict's core issues of slavery and disunion.[3] Annual observances and presidential visits, beginning with Lincoln's, have perpetuated its status as a pilgrimage site, where the physical graves and monuments like the Soldiers' National Monument evoke the tangible cost—nearly 7,000 total battle dead—of preserving constitutional government.[1] This symbolism extends to shaping broader interpretations of sacrifice, serving as a model for subsequent national cemeteries and reinforcing causal links between battlefield losses and the endurance of republican institutions.[3]

Debates on Commemoration and Reconciliation

The 1913 semicentennial reunion of the Battle of Gettysburg, held on the battlefield encompassing the National Cemetery grounds, exemplified early 20th-century reconciliation efforts, drawing 53,402 Union and Confederate veterans who shared meals, recounted experiences, and shook hands across former lines, fostering a narrative of national healing.[55] This event, attended by President Woodrow Wilson, emphasized mutual respect for combatants' sacrifices but systematically marginalized African American Union veterans, whose inclusion risked underscoring the war's emancipationist purpose and disrupting the predominant white sectional reconciliation theme.[56] Historians note that such exclusions preserved a sanitized memory prioritizing bravery over slavery's causal role, aligning with broader patterns where Black soldiers' contributions, despite their burials in the cemetery's U.S. Regulars section, received unequal commemorative attention.[57] Interpretations of Abraham Lincoln's November 19, 1863, dedication address at the cemetery fueled ongoing debates about reconciliation's scope, with contemporary critics like the Democratic newspaper dismissing it as overly politicized rhetoric on equality, while later analyses highlighted its implicit rejection of compromise on slavery in favor of a "new birth of freedom."[58] Postwar commemorations increasingly recast the speech within a reconciliationist framework, downplaying its antislavery implications to promote North-South unity, as evidenced by the cemetery's monuments focusing on Union valor without explicit reference to Confederate defeat's moral dimensions.[59] This shift, critiqued for eliding causal realism about the war's origins, reflected institutional preferences for sectional harmony over racial justice reckoning. The erection of Confederate state monuments adjacent to the cemetery, beginning with Virginia's in 1917, ignited disputes over balanced commemoration, as Union veterans protested their placement on victorious ground as legitimizing rebellion, yet federal oversight permitted them to symbolize postwar rapprochement.[60] Early examples, like the 1896 North Carolina marker—the first Confederate monument—drew backlash for glorifying the defeated side amid ongoing sectional tensions.[61] Contemporary debates, particularly post-2020, center on recontextualizing these 24 monuments through interpretive markers acknowledging slavery's centrality, versus removal proposals that risk erasing evidence of reconciliation's historical trade-offs; proponents argue retention aids empirical understanding of how Lost Cause narratives influenced memory.[62][63] The cemetery itself, restricted to Union burials, underscores unresolved tensions, as no formal efforts succeeded in relocating Confederate remains there, preserving its dedication to federal preservation of the Union.[64]

References

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  3. The Soldiers' National Cemetery at Gettysburg
  4. National Cemetery Virtual Tour - Gettysburg National Military Park ...
  5. Cultural Landscapes Inventory: Gettysburg National Cemetery
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  7. Bivouac of the Dead Plaque (U.S. National Park Service)
  8. Soldiers' National Cemetery (U.S. National Park Service)
  9. How to Find Graves in Soldiers National Cemetery - Civil War Cycling
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  13. Burying the Dead - The Gettysburg Compiler
  14. What Happened to Gettysburg's Confederate Dead?
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  27. The David Wills House - Gettysburg National Military Park (U.S. ...
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  29. Gettysburg Address The Formal Invitation - Library of Congress
  30. Gettysburg address delivered at Gettysburg Pa. Nov. 19th, 1863 ...
  31. Gettysburg Address | Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and ...
  32. Lincoln Address Memorial (U.S. National Park Service)
  33. Soldiers' National Monument (U.S. National Park Service)
  34. NPS Historical Handbook: Gettysburg - NPS History
  35. Soldiers' National Monument, (sculpture) | Smithsonian Institution
  36. Soldiers National Monument - The Battle of Gettysburg
  37. Soldiers National Monument - The History List
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  48. - Monument Rehabilitation - Gettysburg Foundation
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  50. Hubbub of Activity Surrounds Gettysburg's Monuments and Cannon
  51. A Monumental Effort: Restoring Monuments at Gettysburg
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  53. Forging a Preservation Legacy at Gettysburg
  54. [PDF] The Civil War: Lincoln and the Gettysburg Address
  55. The World Will Never See the Like: The Gettysburg Reunion of 1913
  56. [PDF] Race and the Lessons of the Civil War at the 1913 Gettysburg Reunion
  57. [PDF] Remembrance and Reconciliation | Crossroads of War
  58. [PDF] The Long Shadow of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address by ... - Journals
  59. Gettysburg tells the story of more than a battle − the military park ...
  60. The Contested Origins of Gettysburg's Virginia Monument
  61. The Confederate Monument Controversy….in the 1890s
  62. Should Confederate Monuments Stay Up or Come Down? - HistoryNet
  63. At Gettysburg, worry over preserving history without sugarcoating
  64. https://www.nps.gov/gett/learn/historyculture/confederate-monuments.htm
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