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Image macro
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Image macro
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An image macro referring to Wikipedia rabbit holes

An image macro is a piece of digital media featuring a picture, or artwork, with some form of text superimposed. The text frequently appears at the top and bottom of the image. Image macros were one of the most common forms of Internet memes in the 2000s, and often featured witty messages or catchphrases, although not all image macros are necessarily humorous. Lolcats, which are images of expressive cats coupled with texts, are considered to be the first notable occurrence of image macros.[1] Advice animal image macros, also referred to as stock-character macros, are also highly associated with the image macro template.

Etymology and use

[edit]

The term "image macro" originated on the Something Awful forums.[2] The name derived from the fact that the "macros" were a short bit of text a user could enter that the forum software would automatically parse and expand into the code for a pre-defined image.[2] This, in turn, related to the computer science concept of a macro instruction; "a rule or pattern that specifies how a certain input sequence (often a sequence of characters) should be mapped to an output sequence (also often a sequence of characters) according to a defined procedure".

Beginning in 2007, lolcats and similar image macros (a form of Internet phenomenon) spread beyond the initial communities who created them and became widely popular.[3]

Formats

[edit]
An older and more traditional format for image macros
Another image macro format that has become more common since the mid-2010s

Image macros have several different formats, of which the most common types consists of:

  • Text, typically a large text in the Impact font,[4] centered at the top and bottom of the image, usually using all upper-case letters. White text with a black border is typically used because it is easily readable on almost any background color. Typically, the text at the top is only for introduction and the text at the bottom is the main message. Exaggerated, intentional spelling errors are also used frequently for humorous effect. [citation needed]
  • An image to be placed behind the text. These are typically drawn from a specific set of images that are understood by many Internet users, such as Bad Luck Brian. However, by using the aforementioned typographic style, any image can take on the context or aesthetic of an image macro.

Examples

[edit]
Photo of owl's head with "O RLY" superimposed.
An image of the O RLY owl using the Comic Sans font.

Cats and other animals in general have been a popular choice for images with humorous captions since the mid-2000s.[5] Some common animal-related image macros include lolcats, every time you masturbate... God kills a kitten, O RLY?, Doge and Grumpy Cat.

O RLY is often used on the internet as an abbreviation for the phrase "Oh, really?" Originally started with a snowy owl photograph (which is the classic O RLY image macro),[6] it spread out over the Web quickly and was followed by other macros that convey a wide range of emotions.

Another style of image macro that has amassed its own separate subculture is the "lolcat", an image combining a photograph of a cat with text intended to contribute humour. The text is often idiosyncratic and grammatically incorrect, and its use in this way is known as "lolspeak". Many times, the image is told from the point of view of the animal.[5]

"Rage faces" from rage comics are used to humorously depict an everyday or exaggerated situation or reaction.[7] Although Rage Comics in themselves are not image macros, images of specific rage faces are taken and put into image macro format and used in conjunction to their implied emotion or context.

Another popular type of image macro includes a picture of a certain person or figure drawn from various sources in front of a colored background, known as "advice animals". These "characters" often share the same image, but different internet users can choose different humorous captions.[8] These characters can include "Bad Luck Brian", "Success Kid", and "Scumbag Steve", among others. Bad Luck Brian image captions are used for unfortunate situations, Success Kid image captions depict an everyday situation involving good luck, and Scumbag Steve captions describe an unfriendly action taken by somebody.

Websites such as Know Your Meme document image macros such as Bad Luck Brian that have become popular enough to become internet memes, covering such topics as their original intended meaning, spread and popularity (as measured by Google search interest over time).

Another common trend in image macros is using specific scenes from television or movies such as One does not simply walk into Mordor from Lord of the Rings and 'Not Sure If-' from Futurama that uses a screen image of the character Fry looking unsure with his eyes squinted.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Image macro

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
An image macro is a prevalent format of characterized by a static image overlaid with caption text, often arranged at the top and bottom to convey humor, , or cultural commentary through the interplay of visual and verbal elements. These memes typically feature a recognizable template image combined with user-generated text in a bold, outlined font, relying on shared cultural knowledge for their impact. Image macros originated in the early amid the rise of communities and social platforms like , evolving from earlier text-based humor into visual formats that facilitated rapid sharing and remixing. Early examples include the "O RLY?" image and LOLcats, which popularized the structure of captioned animal photos for comedic effect starting around 2005. By the late , dedicated tools like memegenerator.net (launched in 2009) and cheezburger.com's meme builder democratized creation, leading to widespread proliferation on forums such as and . This format's defining traits—patterned image-text combinations and community-driven reproduction—have made it a cornerstone of digital , enabling concise expression of social themes while adapting through intertextual variations across platforms like and .

Definition and Origins

Definition

An image macro is a type of consisting of a static , typically photographic or illustrative, overlaid with bold text in a top-and-bottom caption format. The core components include the base , which provides visual context, and the superimposed text, often in a sans-serif font like Impact with white lettering and black outlines for readability against varied backgrounds. This format conveys humor, irony, or relatable everyday situations through the interplay between the image and captions, where the top text sets up a and the bottom delivers a punchline or twist. Key characteristics of image macros include their repetitive, templated structure, which allows for easy and remixing by users while maintaining recognizable conventions. The text emphasizes brevity and punchy phrasing to quick comprehension and shareability, relying on the between visual elements and verbal content to generate meaning that might not arise from either alone. This templated approach fosters community participation, as variations build on established images to comment on current events or personal experiences. Image macros are distinguished from related visual media by their focus on single, static rather than animated or video-based formats, setting them apart from GIFs, reaction videos, or multi-panel . Unlike broader categories that may encompass audio, motion, or extended narratives, image macros prioritize a concise, self-contained structure optimized for rapid digital dissemination.

Etymology

The term "image macro" emerged in the early 2000s within online forums, particularly on , where forum software enabled users to insert pre-defined captioned images via computing macros—automated shortcuts for repetitive tasks. This usage combined "macro," borrowed from to denote executable templates, with "image" to highlight the visual format of captioned photographs or graphics. The concept drew from earlier digital practices, such as Photoshop actions (macros for batch-editing images with text overlays), which facilitated quick creation of humorous or satirical visuals in internet communities. The earliest documented application of the term occurred on February 12, 2004, in a forum post by user , defining it as a captioned image template for online expression. By 2003–2005, as platforms like proliferated, the term gained traction in discussions of forum-based humor, evolving into shorthand for reusable structures amid the rise of anonymous imageboards. Distinct from "demotivational posters," which trace to Despair, Inc.'s 1998 launch of parodies of pre-digital motivational prints featuring ironic slogans over stock imagery, "image macro" specifically denoted the interactive, template-driven variant. By , with the advent of meme generators like memegenerator., the term had solidified as standard nomenclature in glossaries and cultural analyses of digital humor.

Historical Development

Early Precursors

The concept of pairing images with humorous or satirical captions predates the internet, drawing from non-digital formats in the late . In the , demotivational posters emerged as a of corporate motivational posters, featuring overlaid with ironic, defeatist text to mock workplace platitudes and culture. These posters, popularized by Despair, Inc., which launched in 1998, used a structured visual layout—typically a scenic at the top, a bold title, and explanatory caption below—that mirrored the eventual template-based design of image macros. Similarly, single-panel comic strips like Gary Larson's , syndicated from 1980 to 1995, employed image-caption pairings to deliver absurd, satirical commentary on and . Larson's format, often a standalone with a concise, witty caption, required viewers to interpret layered meanings, influencing the dense, self-contained humor in later captioned visuals. This approach emphasized visual irony and punchy text, laying conceptual groundwork for the satirical edge in image macros. Early digital experiments in the built on these influences through on nascent online communities. Sites like .com, launched in 1999, hosted Photoshop contests starting around 2000, where participants edited source images with added text, effects, or captions to create humorous montages, often shared in threaded discussions. Between 2001 and 2003, these contests frequently featured captioned alterations of news photos or stock images, fostering creative remixing that prefigured standardized macro templates. The transition to reusable formats occurred via informal digital sharing in the early , primarily through chains and personal websites, before structured forums took hold. forwards with "FWD" subjects circulated captioned images and simple edits as joke compilations, enabling viral dissemination among friends and colleagues without centralized platforms. Personal sites, common on free hosting services like , displayed user-curated galleries of captioned photos, allowing early experimentation with recurring themes and layouts that hinted at templated macros.

Rise in Internet Culture

The proliferation of image macros gained momentum in the mid-2000s, particularly with a surge on 4chan's /b/ board around 2005, where users rapidly adopted the format for humorous, captioned images amid the site's anonymous posting environment. This development built briefly on earlier demotivational poster roots from the late 1990s, adapting them into digital templates suitable for online remixing. By 2007, dedicated sites like popularized specific subgenres, while , launched that December as part of the Cheezburger Network, began cataloging and analyzing these formats, aiding their documentation and spread. The following year, Reddit's r/memes subreddit, created in June 2008, further accelerated adoption by providing a structured community for upvoting and sharing image macros. Several interconnected factors drove this growth, including the anonymity afforded by forums like , which encouraged uninhibited experimentation without personal accountability. The ease of remixing existing templates using simple tools like Photoshop or early generators aligned with the era's shift toward , allowing quick iterations and variations. Moreover, image macros embodied participatory , inviting collective creation and adaptation that fostered community bonds and viral dissemination across nascent social platforms. Image macros reached their peak dominance in the amid the boom, becoming a staple of online humor on sites like and , where they integrated into broader ecosystems. Platforms such as , founded in 2009, played a pivotal role by hosting millions of image macro uploads and shares by , underscoring their scale in everyday digital interactions. This era solidified their role as accessible vehicles for cultural commentary, propelled by the explosive growth of sharing mechanisms.

Formats and Conventions

Visual and Text Structures

Image macros typically employ high-contrast photographs or illustrations of people, animals, or objects that display expressive poses or facial reactions to visually amplify the intended humor or message. These images are often sourced from libraries or archives to ensure broad accessibility and reusability in digital sharing. Early conventions favored simple, totemic animal figures placed against solid color backgrounds, while later variations incorporated more detailed human portraits for relatable emotional cues. The textual elements adhere to strict conventions for maximum impact and readability. Captions are rendered in the Impact font—a bold, in all uppercase letters, colored white with a thick black outline to stand out against any background. Placement follows a top-and-bottom structure, with the upper caption establishing a relatable scenario or setup, and the lower caption delivering the punchline or ironic twist for humorous resolution. This bipartite phrasing creates an incongruity that drives the meme's comedic effect, often contrasting expectation with an unexpected revelation. Layout emphasizes clarity and shareability, with text centered horizontally and vertically spaced to avoid overlapping critical visual details like faces or actions. The overall composition maintains aspect ratios optimized for web platforms, commonly around 5:4 (e.g., 500x400 pixels), ensuring quick loading and consistent display across forums and . This standardized format, which emerged from communities in the mid-2000s, became widely adopted through online meme generators by 2010.

Variations in Style

Image macros have adapted regionally to incorporate local languages and cultural elements, diverging from their predominantly English origins. Similarly, Asian adaptations frequently integrate anime-style imagery, such as characters from Japanese or Korean cartoons like Melody or Loopy, combined with elements including homophones, emojis, and non-Chinese terms to soften offense or enhance regional humor on platforms like . These influences reflect shared East Asian digital trends, where local communities, such as Malayalam-speaking groups in , repurpose global templates with culturally specific movie references or initialisms. Over time, image macro formats have evolved to suit technological shifts, particularly post-2015 with the rise of mobile consumption. A notable is the transition to vertical layouts, optimizing for smartphone scrolling; for instance, multi-panel memes like the "American Chopper Argument" use stacked screenshots to simulate debates, contrasting the traditional horizontal, Impact-font norms of early static macros. Hybrid forms have also emerged, blending the static core of image macros with animated GIFs by overlaying text on short video clips, as enabled by tools like YouTube's GIF-o-matic generator, which allows users to add top-and-bottom captions to looping segments up to six seconds long. Niche styles of image macros often serve specialized purposes, such as political commentary. In efforts, creators alter base images to discredit opponents, exemplified by Spanish memes during the 2020 crisis: the "" template rebranded a as a , while modified "" posters pitted partisan factions against each other to amplify ideological divides. Minimalist versions, featuring single-line text for succinct impact, deviate from multi-line conventions to emphasize irony or critique in constrained spaces, as seen in structural variations that prioritize brevity over elaboration.

Creation and Dissemination

Tools and Methods

Image macros are typically created using a variety of free and accessible software tools that allow users to overlay text on base images, following a straightforward process of selecting a template, adding captions in specific placements such as the top and bottom, and exporting the result. Basic editors like , a pre-installed Windows application, enable simple meme production through its text and drawing features, often used for quick, low-fidelity creations. Similarly, the open-source GNU Image Manipulation Program (GIMP) provides layering capabilities for adding outlined text to images, making it a popular free alternative for more precise edits without cost barriers. Online generators, such as Imgflip launched in 2008, streamline this by offering pre-loaded templates and drag-and-drop text placement, facilitating rapid production for users without design software. For advanced customization, is widely employed to refine image macros with features like custom fonts, stroke outlines for text visibility, and precise layering, allowing creators to adapt templates beyond standard formats. In the , techniques emerged in tools like GIMP's BIMP plugin, enabling creators to apply consistent text overlays and effects across multiple base images to generate template variations efficiently. The accessibility of image macro creation has evolved significantly with mobile applications and AI integration. Apps such as Meme Generator, released in September 2011 by Zombodroid, introduced on-the-go editing with touch-based text addition and template libraries, democratizing production for users. Post-2020, AI-driven tools like Supermeme.ai (launched in 2022) have automated captioning and template selection from text prompts, using to suggest humorous overlays and generate macros in seconds; as of 2025, further advancements include tools like Viggle AI for creating animated meme videos from static images.

Platforms and Communities

Image macros originated on anonymous imageboards such as , where early examples like lolcats emerged around 2005, serving as prototypes for the format and rapidly spreading through in niche online spaces. Similarly, Reddit's r/memes subreddit, established in 2008, became a key hub for sharing and iterating on image macros, acting as a breeding ground for viral templates due to its focus on humorous, captioned images. These platforms facilitated and rapid iteration, allowing macros to evolve from isolated posts to widespread phenomena within online communities. In the , image macros expanded to mainstream social networks, with groups dedicated to meme sharing proliferating as users adapted the format for broader audiences, often in humor circles and themed pages. (now X) further amplified their dissemination, enabling quick shares of static captioned images alongside text-based humor, contributing to their integration into everyday online . Community dynamics on these platforms heavily influence the popularity and evolution of image macros, particularly through upvoting systems on and , which prioritize high-engagement content and promote reusable templates by surfacing those with the most upvotes. This mechanism fosters virality, as macros receiving collective approval rise in visibility, encouraging creators to refine popular formats for maximum resonance. Additionally, subcultures such as furry and gaming communities develop themed variants, overlaying captions on niche imagery—like anthropomorphic characters or screenshots—to reflect shared interests and inside jokes within their groups.

Notable Examples

Iconic Early Macros

One of the earliest and most influential image macro templates emerged in 2005 with the precursors to s, consisting of captioned photographs of cats using intentionally known as "lolspeak" to convey humorous or absurd messages. These images originated on the anonymous imageboard as part of a weekly "Caturday" tradition, where users posted cat pictures to counter other themed threads, marking a pivotal moment in the rise of internet humor on such platforms. By 2007, this format exploded in popularity with the launch of the website , which curated and shared user-submitted images, receiving 200 to 500 submissions daily and generating over 3.3 million results at its peak. In 2006, Advice Dog established a foundational template for ironic or mischievous guidance within the . The meme features a smiling [Shiba Inu](/page/Shiba Inu) puppy's head superimposed on a multicolored background, accompanied by top and bottom text delivering comically poor, unethical, or self-destructive "advice," often with ironic undertones that subverted helpful intentions. It first appeared on September 4, 2006, on the fan site The Mushroom Kingdom messageboard before spreading widely to 4chan's /b/ board, where it inspired the broader Advice Animals series of exploitable templates. This format's template structure—fixed image with variable caption text—became a staple for , influencing countless derivatives in early culture. The Success Kid macro, originating in 2007, captured a moment of triumphant determination through a photograph of an 11-month-old baby clenching his fist on a beach, symbolizing small personal victories or overcoming minor setbacks. Taken by photographer Laney Griner on August 26, 2007, and initially posted to Flickr and her personal blog, the image evolved into a reaction meme by late 2009, with captions highlighting ironic successes like "Finally got that parking spot" or "Aced the test after cramming." By early 2011, it had generated over 66,000 instances on meme creation sites like Quickmeme, demonstrating its rapid adoption and enduring appeal as a positive, relatable archetype in the 2000s meme landscape.

Contemporary and Evolving Examples

One prominent example from the late is the meme, which originated from a 2015 stock photograph by Spanish photographer Antonio Guillem depicting a man glancing at another woman while walking with his girlfriend. Adapted as an image macro in early 2017, it quickly became a template for illustrating themes of , , or shifting priorities in personal, political, and consumer contexts, with the boyfriend representing temptation, the other woman as a new interest, and the girlfriend as the overlooked original. The meme exploded in popularity on starting in August 2017, generating millions of variations and engagements across platforms. Another influential adaptation is the This Is Fine dog, derived from KC Green's 2013 webcomic "On Fire" in his Gunshow series, featuring an anthropomorphic dog calmly sipping coffee amid a room engulfed in flames while declaring "This is fine." Repurposed as an image macro around 2016, it symbolized denial, resignation, or ironic acceptance during chaotic situations, such as political turmoil or personal crises. Its usage surged in 2020 amid the COVID-19 pandemic and related global events, serving as a visual shorthand for collective endurance in overwhelming circumstances.

Cultural and Social Impact

Role in Memes and Humor

Image macros play a central role in generating humor through incongruity-resolution strategies, where the mismatch between the visual image and overlaid text creates unexpected contrasts that prompt quick laughs. This primary mechanism, known as discourse-image incongruity, accounts for the majority of humorous effects in image macros, as the text often reinterprets or subverts the image's apparent meaning in a surprising way. Relatability further amplifies this appeal, with memes drawing on familiar emotional cues or everyday scenarios to make the incongruity immediately recognizable and applicable to the audience's experiences. Such rapid comprehension fosters instant comedic payoff, distinguishing image macros from more elaborate forms. Within the broader ecosystem, image macros serve as foundational building blocks, particularly for reaction images that express immediate emotional responses in online conversations. These templates are repeatedly adapted and reused across communities, enabling users to layer new text onto established visuals for contextual . Over time, this iterative process leads to their into meta-memes, which self-referentially comment on the meme format itself or its cultural saturation, thereby reflecting and critiquing the ecosystem's dynamics. Platforms like exemplify this integration by hosting dedicated subreddits where users remix image macros into evolving chains of reactions. The psychological appeal of image macros lies in their ability to foster social bonding through shared irony, creating a sense of in-group among those who "get" the layered humor. This ironic alignment invites users to recognize collective experiences, strengthening communal ties and reducing feelings of isolation. Research links this sharing behavior to , where the humorous release of tensions via memes serves as an emotional outlet, particularly in stressful contexts, enhancing overall psychological . Such mechanisms contribute to the virality of memes, as the and bonding elements drive rapid dissemination within online groups.

Broader Societal Influence

Image macros have permeated , influencing television programming and commercial by blending humor with broader entertainment and marketing strategies. In the , episodes of the American sitcom (2005–2013) provided source material for numerous image macros, such as those featuring Michael Scott's exaggerated reactions, which extended the show's reach into viral online culture and reinforced its meme-worthy legacy. Similarly, campaigns like 's 2016 "Say It with Pepsi" initiative incorporated emoji-based visuals akin to simplified image macros to engage younger audiences through digital shorthand. In the political sphere, image macros played a significant role during the 2016 U.S. presidential election, where they served as tools for , , and on platforms. These visuals, often adapting popular templates to comment on candidates like and , amplified partisan narratives and influenced by rapidly disseminating simplified, emotionally charged messages. Image macros continued to play a key role in the 2024 U.S. presidential election, where memes satirizing candidates like and Donald Trump amplified partisan narratives and on . For social activism, adaptations of image macros were used in the Black Lives Matter movement to raise awareness about racial injustice, with multimodal memes combining protest imagery and overlaid text to foster and counter . The global reach of image macros is evident in their translation and adaptation across non-English contexts, where U.S.-origin templates are localized with culturally relevant text and imagery to resonate with international audiences. This diffusion has enabled memes to function as expressive repertoires in diverse linguistic environments, from Indonesian adaptations of Advice Animal macros to broader viral spreads in and . In the 2020s, image macros have supported climate activism through templated calls-to-action, such as those repurposing humorous formats to highlight environmental urgency and encourage , as seen in efforts by groups like .

Intellectual Property Concerns

Image macros often incorporate source images that are licensed under (CC), which explicitly allow for the creation of derivative works such as adding overlaid text, provided users comply with attribution requirements for certain CC variants like CC BY. These licenses facilitate widespread meme creation by granting permissions for non-commercial remixing while protecting the original creator's rights. However, when image macros rely on fully copyrighted source material without such licenses, infringement risks emerge, especially in commercial contexts; for instance, the "" photograph's copyright holder, Laney Griner, prevailed in a filed in 2020 (with a in 2022) against former U.S. Congressman Steve King's reelection campaign for using the meme in a post, securing a statutory minimum of $750 in damages, a ruling upheld by the Eighth Circuit in 2024 and the U.S. declined to review in 2025. Ownership of viral image macro templates typically vests in the creator of the derivative work (the text overlay), but the underlying source image's remains with its original author, creating layered rights that can lead to disputes over variations. Debates arise regarding collective "ownership" of popular templates, as anonymous online communities often iterate on them collaboratively without clear authorship tracking. platforms exacerbate these issues through that compel users to grant broad, irrevocable licenses; for example, users retain personal but license platforms like or to reproduce, distribute, and display content worldwide, including sublicensing to third parties, which enables viral spread but limits creators' exclusive control. Under U.S. , the transformative addition of text to images in macros—altering the original work's meaning for humor, commentary, or —often invokes defenses for non-commercial dissemination, as codified in 17 U.S.C. § 107. Courts assess via four factors: the purpose (favoring transformative, non-profit uses like memes), the nature of the original (less protective for creative works but offset by transformation), the amount used (typically minimal, such as a single frame), and market impact (negligible for non-substitutive memes). Legal analyses conclude that typical image macros qualify as in personal or social sharing, though commercial exploitation, as in the "" political fundraising case, weakens this protection due to the for-profit nature of the use.

Ethical Use and Misrepresentation

Image macros have been criticized for their role in propagating harmful stereotypes, particularly racial caricatures prevalent in the early , where templates often reinforced derogatory depictions of through exaggerated imagery and captions that normalized bias under the guise of humor. These formats facilitated the rapid spread of such content on platforms like and early communities, amplifying cultural prejudices without contextual critique. Similarly, personalized image macros have enabled by allowing users to edit templates with targeted insults, photos, or identifiers, escalating in online spaces and contributing to emotional distress among victims. In response to these issues, online communities have developed ethical guidelines to curb misuse, including norms on that prohibit in meme-related subreddits, with moderators enforcing removals of content promoting or bigotry to maintain constructive discourse. Post-2015, there have been increasing calls for inclusivity in image macro template design, emphasizing diverse representations to avoid perpetuating biases, as seen in academic efforts to make memes accessible and representative of varied identities. These guidelines tie into broader platform moderation policies aimed at fostering safer environments for meme creation and sharing. On a positive note, image macros have been ethically employed to raise awareness, such as through "depression macros" that use relatable templates to depict struggles with anxiety or isolation, thereby promoting and reducing stigma among viewers. Studies indicate that engaging with such humorous yet authentic memes can serve as a mechanism, eliciting positive emotional responses and encouraging support for those experiencing psychiatric symptoms. This approach highlights the potential of image macros to humanize sensitive topics when used responsibly.

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  56. https://thestaticstore.com/blogs/news/this-is-fine-meme-origin-popularity-and-examples
  57. https://scispace.com/pdf/incongruity-resolution-humorous-strategies-in-image-macro-1gmr57svy1.pdf
  58. https://www.academia.edu/128200889/A_semiotic_analysis_of_the_canonical_image_macro_meme
  59. https://fiveable.me/language-popular-culture/unit-9/visual-rhetoric-memes/study-guide/Jsqw05rfg057bIu3
  60. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/20563051211069055
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  62. https://rhetoric.bg/virality-contagion-and-public-discourse-the-role-of-memes-as-prophylaxis-and-catharsis-in-an-age-of-crisis
  63. https://www.dictionary.com/e/s/words-and-quotes-from-the-office/
  64. https://www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/pepsi-about-unleash-emojis-its-bottles-and-cans-globally-summer-169782/
  65. https://thehill.com/homenews/4969584-election-memes-campaign-trump/
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  71. https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ca8/23-2117/23-2117-2024-06-07.html
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  73. https://www.turnpikelaw.com/who-owns-what-you-post-on-social-media/
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  75. https://texaslawreview.org/modern-problems-require-modern-solutions-internet-memes-and-copyright/
  76. https://journals.librarypublishing.arizona.edu/jcrae/article/4898/galley/4839/view/
  77. https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3613&context=etd
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  82. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/download/23534/4947
  83. https://www.shu.ac.uk/news/all-articles/latest-news/meme-research
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