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Kashida
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Kashida |
Kashida or kasheeda (Persian: کَشِیدَه, romanized: kašīda,[note 1] lit. 'extended' or 'stretched' or 'lengthened'), also known as tatweel or tatwīl (Arabic: تَطْوِيل, romanized: taṭwīl), is a type of justification in written Arabic and in some descendant cursive scripts in which the line connecting letters is extended.[1] In contrast to white-space justification, which increases the length of a line of text by expanding spaces between words or individual letters, kasheeda creates justification by elongating characters at certain points. Kasheeda justification can be combined with white-space justification.
The analog in European (Latin-based) typography (expanding or contracting letters to improve spacing) is sometimes called expansion, and falls within microtypography. Kasheeda is considerably easier and more flexible, however, because Arabic–Persian scripts feature prominent horizontal strokes, whose lengths are accordingly flexible.
For example, al-ḥamdu and Raḥīm with and without kasheeda may look like the following:
| Word | Meaning | Normal | Kasheeda |
|---|---|---|---|
| al-ḥamdu | ‘praise’ | الحمد | الحمــــــد |
| Raħīm | ‘merciful’ | رحيم | رحــــــيم |
The terms kasheeda and tatweel can also refer to a character that represents this elongation (ـ) or to one of a set of glyphs of varying lengths that implement this elongation in a font. The Unicode standard assigns code point U+0640 ـ ARABIC TATWEEL.
The kasheeda can take a subtle downward curvature in some calligraphic styles and handwriting. However, the curvilinear stroke is not feasible for most basic fonts, which merely use a completely flat underscore-like (or string-like) stroke for kashida.
In addition to letter spacing and justification, calligraphers also use kasheeda for emphasis and as book or chapter titles. In modern Arabic mathematical notation, kasheeda appears in some operation symbols that must stretch to accommodate associated contents above or below.[2]
Kasheeda generally only appears in one word per line, and one letter per word. Furthermore, experts recommend kasheeda only between certain combinations of letters (typically those that cannot form a ligature). Some calligraphers who were paid by the page used an large number of kasheeda in order to stretch content over more pages.[3]
The branding of the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar applies kasheeda to Latin script, connecting the bottom of the "t" and the second "a" in the host country's name.[4][5][6]
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ Transliteration based on Classical and Early New Persian (but also applies to the modern varieties of Dari and Tajik). In Modern Iranian Persian, however, this would be transliterated as kašide or kešide.
References
[edit]- ^ "The Big Kashida Secret".
- ^ Lazrek, Azzeddine. "Arabic mathematical notation: Symbol Stretching". W3C Interest Group Note.
- ^ Benatia, Mohamed Jamal Eddine; Elyaakoubi, Mohamed; Lazrek, Azzeddine (2006). Arabic text justification (PDF). TUGboat: The Communications of the TeX Users Group. Vol. 27:2. Dept. of Computer Science, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakesh. p. 137. ISSN 0896-3207.
- ^ "Qatar 2022 emblem revealed". The Peninsula. 4 September 2019. Retrieved 2019-09-04.
- ^ "Qatar 2022: Football World Cup logo unveiled". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2019-09-04.
- ^ "Qatar 2022 World Cup logo unveiled, reflects move to winter tournament". The Week. Retrieved 2019-09-04.
External links
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Kashida
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Definition and Overview
Etymology and Terminology
The term kashida derives from the Classical Persian word kašīda (کشیده), the past participle of the verb kašīdan (کشیدن), meaning "to draw," "to pull," or "to extend."[4][5] This Persian origin reflects the concept of stretching or prolonging elements within script. In parallel, the Arabic term tatweel (تَطْوِيل, romanized as taṭwīl) functions as a verbal noun from the root ṭ-w-y-l, specifically form II ṭawwala (طَوَّلَ), denoting the act of making something long or elongated. Variant terminology appears across different linguistic and script traditions influenced by the Arabic alphabet. In Persian-influenced contexts, such as those involving Nastaliq script, kashida remains the predominant term. Standard Arabic typography and calligraphy favor tatweel, while design literature occasionally employs the variant spelling kasheeda (or keshida), a transliteration emphasizing the Persian roots.[6][7] These terms are interconnected, with tatweel often serving as the Arabic equivalent for the Persian kashida.[5] The terminology developed alongside cursive scripts in Arabic and Persian calligraphic traditions during the medieval Islamic world, with tatweel specifically emerging as a typographic feature in the 16th century through early European Arabic printing efforts.[5][3] This period saw the refinement of fluid, connected writing systems, where such elongative features complemented broader script elements like ligatures to enhance readability and aesthetics in manuscripts.[5]Core Concept and Visual Representation
Kashida is a typographic technique in Arabic script that involves the elongation of the horizontal connecting stroke between adjacent letters in cursive words, serving as a non-space character to extend the baseline without altering letter shapes. This method allows for aesthetic and functional adjustments in text layout, particularly in justified lines, by inserting an extensible glyph at permissible join points. Known equivalently in Arabic as tatweel, it preserves the script's fluid connectivity while enabling controlled expansion.[8][9] Visually, kashida manifests as a curvilinear extension that follows the natural curve of the letter join, often appearing as a repeated dash-like form (e.g., ـــــ) integrated seamlessly into the word. Insertion occurs typically after letters with suitable horizontal tails, such as ب (bāʾ), ي (yāʾ, except at word ends), or ل (lām), where the extension bridges to the following letter without disrupting form. For instance, the word الحمد (al-ḥamd) can transform to الحمــــــد by adding kashida after م (mīm), creating a balanced elongation that maintains readability. This mechanic differs fundamentally from simple letter stretching, as kashida introduces a dedicated horizontal glyph rather than proportionally distorting individual letter widths, thereby upholding the script's proportional harmony.[8][10][11] Basic rules govern kashida application to ensure legibility and even visual density: generally, only one instance per word and no more than one stretched word per line, with prohibitions on extending the first letter in short words or at certain endings like ي. Excessive use is avoided to prevent uneven text "color" or aesthetic imbalance, prioritizing typographic elegance over mechanical uniformity.[8][12]Historical Development
Origins in Traditional Calligraphy
Kashida, a technique involving the elongation of horizontal connections between letters, emerged in Arabic calligraphy as a method for scribes to adjust text layout and achieve visual harmony.[3] This practice developed within the cursive nature of the Arabic script, allowing calligraphers to extend specific letters—such as those with baseline connections like bā', yā', and lām—without altering the fundamental form of the text.[5] In styles like Naskh, which emphasized readability and elegance for everyday and religious writing, and Thuluth, known for its monumental and decorative proportions, kashida enabled scribes to fit words into predetermined spaces while maintaining proportional balance.[13][5] The cultural significance of kashida was profound, particularly in the production of Quranic manuscripts and architectural inscriptions, where it ensured aesthetic equilibrium and uniform line lengths without modifying the sacred or inscribed content.[3] Scribes applied it subtly to religious texts, scientific treatises, and literary works, enhancing readability and visual appeal in hand-copied volumes that served as central artifacts in Islamic scholarship and devotion.[5] In architectural contexts, such as mosque panels and tombstones, kashida helped integrate text into ornate designs, adapting to curved or limited surfaces while preserving the script's fluidity.[3] Key figures like Ibn Muqla (d. 940 CE), a vizier and pioneering calligrapher at the Abbasid court, played a foundational role by standardizing letter proportions based on geometric principles, including the rhomboid dot as a unit of measure.[13] His system influenced subsequent masters and provided a framework for balanced compositions in scripts such as Naskh and Thuluth.[14] However, early calligraphers sometimes overextended kashida for decorative effect, particularly in titles and poetic compositions, leading to stylistic debates among scholars about adherence to proportional rules and the risk of compromising legibility.[14] These discussions underscored kashida's dual role as both a practical tool and an artistic element in traditional practice.[5]Evolution in Printed Typography
Although tatweel and kashida-like elongations appeared in printed Arabic as early as the 16th century in Europe—for instance, in a 1516 multilingual gospel from Genoa and types cut by Robert Granjon for the Medici Oriental Press in Rome—their adaptation in the Ottoman Empire and Egypt occurred amid the late 18th and 19th-century establishment of local printing presses, where movable metal type disrupted the natural cursive flow of handwritten scripts.[3] Traditional Arabic calligraphy allowed fluid connections between letters, but the discrete nature of metal typefaces necessitated alternative justification methods to maintain even line lengths without excessive spacing. Kashida emerged as a practical solution, involving the elongation of horizontal strokes to stretch words, particularly in Naskh-style typefaces used for books and official documents. This adaptation was evident in Ottoman printing centers like Istanbul, where by the late 18th century, kashida justification appeared sparingly, as in the 1798 Tuhfe-i Vehbi, and became more common in the 19th century, including in cartographic works such as an 1890 map of the Middle East produced under Ottoman auspices.[15][3] In Egypt, early presses established under Muhammad Ali Pasha from the 1820s onward incorporated kashida sparingly in initial publications, reflecting the influence of European typographic imports while addressing the script's right-to-left, connected-letter requirements.[3] The 20th century brought refinements through hot-metal typesetting technologies, which standardized kashida's application and mitigated some of the excesses seen in calligraphic traditions. Linotype machines, first adapted for Arabic in Egypt around 1906 for French-language newspapers and fully implemented for Arabic by 1911, integrated dedicated tatweel glyphs into their matrices, enabling automated insertion during composition. This shift reduced the overuse of elongations that characterized handwritten manuscripts, favoring more controlled extensions to achieve uniform justification in high-volume printing like newspapers. By the 1960s, systems such as the Linotype-Intertype Arabic JusTape further codified kashida rules through substitution tables, prioritizing it over whitespace adjustments for efficient newsprint production, as exemplified by the Al-Ahram newspaper's adoption in Cairo.[16] These advancements stemmed from the need to balance aesthetic fidelity with mechanical constraints, drawing briefly on calligraphic precedents for stroke elongation.[5] Transitioning to printed forms presented significant challenges, including early inconsistencies in kashida glyphs that led to visual errors, such as abrupt breaks or unnatural stretching in composed lines. In the Ottoman and Egyptian presses of the late 18th and 19th centuries, typefounders struggled with modular letterforms that lacked the variability of handwriting, often resulting in over-reliance on tatweel and compromised readability. These issues were progressively resolved by mid-century through the development of standardized font designs, including unified tatweel variants in hot-metal systems and early phototypesetting, which ensured consistent rendering across presses.[3] Key milestones included the widespread adoption of kashida in Persian and Urdu printing by the 1920s, where it influenced regional typographic norms in colonial India and Iran, adapting Arabic script elongations to local linguistic needs in newspapers and literature. This dissemination helped establish kashida as a cornerstone of non-Latin justification practices in South Asian and Middle Eastern print culture.[16]Typographic Usage
Role in Text Justification
Kashida serves as a primary mechanism for justifying Arabic text in right-to-left scripts, where elongation is distributed across horizontal connections between joined letters to achieve even margins on both sides of the line. This process complements inter-word spacing and avoids hyphenation, which has been prohibited in Arabic typography since the 10th century to preserve word integrity. By stretching curvilinear segments—rather than inserting uniform spaces—kashida maintains the rhythmic flow and typographic color inherent to the cursive nature of the script, ensuring that lines end flush without disrupting readability.[8][3][17] Placement of kashida follows strict calligraphic rules to preserve aesthetic harmony, typically inserted after upright letters that do not connect on their right side, such as د (dāl), ذ (dhāl), and ر (rāʾ), or within the middle of longer words. It is limited to one instance per word, prioritizing shorter words (e.g., four-letter combinations) and avoiding application in two- or three-letter words except in specific cases like certain ligatures. Kashida is never placed mid-ligature to avoid distorting established letter forms, and its insertion depends on contextual factors like word position and script style (e.g., Naskh versus Ruqʿa, which eschews elongation). In digital implementations, the Unicode tatweel character (U+0640) often substitutes as a straight-line extender at these points, though traditional kashida employs dynamic curves.[8][18][19] Unlike Latin justification methods, which rely on kerning, variable inter-word spacing, or hyphenation to distribute space, kashida emphasizes intra-word elongation to sustain the visual continuity of the cursive baseline connection, preventing gaps that would fragment the script's interconnected appearance. This approach aligns with Arabic's manuscript traditions, where justification prioritizes calligraphic proportions over mechanical spacing, though it may combine with minimal inter-word adjustments in modern typesetting.[3][17][20] Despite its effectiveness, kashida has limitations, as over-elongation—beyond one or two instances per line—can create a "staircase" effect or uneven text density, distorting readability and deviating from calligraphic ideals. Modern guidelines, informed by typesetting standards, recommend restraint to avoid such issues, with digital tools sometimes approximating curves via straight segments, which further compromises authenticity. Advanced font designs using Bézier curves or parameterized glyphs are proposed to mitigate these challenges while adhering to traditional rules.[8][18][19]Application for Emphasis and Aesthetics
Beyond its functional roles, Kashida—also known as tatweel—finds prominent application in decorative elongation within Arabic typography, particularly in headings, logos, and posters, where it serves to draw attention and elevate visual style. Designers often incorporate curved or stylized extensions inspired by classical calligraphy to create fluid, eye-catching forms that enhance the overall composition. For example, in contemporary branding, such as the work of Kashida Design studio, elongations are integrated into logos and wall art to impart a luxurious Middle Eastern flair, transforming everyday elements like furniture or signage into aesthetically compelling pieces.[21][1] Aesthetically, Kashida establishes rhythm and balance in titles and ornamental texts by allowing controlled stretching that mirrors phonetic or structural emphases, thereby fostering a sense of harmony. In traditional poetry scrolls and illuminated manuscripts, multiple Kashidas are applied to accentuate rhyming syllables or key phrases, creating a dynamic visual cadence that complements the script's inherent flow. This principle draws from calligraphic mastery, where elongations after letters like sīn or ṣād are positioned to maintain proportional equilibrium and avoid disrupting the text's organic movement.[22][1] In cultural contexts, Kashida appears extensively in signage and book covers to produce dramatic effects, such as extending "رحيم" to "رحــــــيم" for heightened visual impact and emphasis on divine attributes in Islamic-themed designs. These uses reflect Arabic typography's tradition of merging form and expression in public and literary spaces.[22][23] Traditional guidelines emphasize subtle application of Kashida to preserve elegance and prevent vulgarity, adhering to Islamic art norms that prioritize harmony, balance, and spiritual refinement over exaggeration. Calligraphers and typographers follow placement rules—favoring extensions in medial positions for specific letters—to ensure the elongation enhances rather than overwhelms the composition, aligning with broader principles of iḥsān (excellence in beauty) in Islamic aesthetics. Excessive or haphazard use is avoided to uphold the script's intrinsic grace.[1][23][24]Technical Implementation
Unicode and Character Encoding
Kashida, also known as tatweel, is encoded in the Unicode Standard as U+0640 ARABIC TATWEEL, a compatibility character introduced in version 1.1 (June 1993) to support elongation in Arabic-script text.[25] This code point resides within the Arabic block (U+0600–U+06FF), classified as a Letter, Modifier (Lm) category, and serves as a means to extend horizontal connections between letters for typographic justification.[26] In terms of rendering behavior, U+0640 typically appears as a short horizontal dash (ـ) when isolated, but its core function activates in context: it joins with preceding and following Arabic letters that support joining forms, producing an elongated ligature to facilitate kashida insertion without altering the base character sequence.[19] This integration ensures seamless cursive flow in the Arabic script range, where it combines with glyphs from U+0600 to U+06FF to stretch words proportionally during line justification.[27] The character accommodates variants of the Arabic script used in languages such as Persian, Urdu, and Sindhi, enabling consistent elongation across these orthographies while preserving script-specific joining rules.[26] It participates in bidirectional text processing under Unicode Standard Annex #9 (UAX #9), assigned the bidirectional class AL (Arabic Letter), which directs right-to-left rendering and proper embedding within mixed-script layouts. Prior to Unicode's widespread adoption, pre-Unicode encoding systems handled kashida through script-specific mechanisms; for instance, ISO/IEC 8859-6 (Arabic) assigned the tatweel glyph to position 0xE0, directly mapping to the modern U+0640.[28] In the context of Urdu, the Indian Script Code for Information Interchange (ISCII, IS 13194:1991) supported Perso-Arabic scripts via font attributes (e.g., code 0x73 for Urdu mode) but relied on proprietary glyphs and typesetting extensions for features like kashida elongation, as the standard code table did not include a dedicated position for it.[29]Font Design and Rendering Challenges
Designing glyphs for Kashida, also known as tatweel (U+0640), in Arabic fonts requires accommodating variable elongation to support natural justification without disrupting cursive connections. Traditional font designs often provide a single fixed-length Kashida glyph, leading to repetitive stacking for longer extensions, which can result in unnatural visual repetition and poor aesthetic integration. To address this, advanced OpenType fonts incorporate multiple glyph variants—such as short, medium, and long forms—accessed via contextual alternates in features like 'cv01' for stylistic sets, ensuring smoother elongation that aligns with calligraphic principles.[27] These designs leverage GPOS (Glyph Positioning) tables, particularly the 'curs' feature with lookup type 3, to maintain precise positioning in cursive joining, where misalignment can break letter connections or alter readability.[30] Rendering Kashida in software presents significant challenges due to inconsistencies across platforms and browsers. For instance, major browsers like Chrome (Blink engine), Firefox (Gecko/HarfBuzz), and Safari (WebKit) primarily rely on inter-word spacing for justification, often failing to apply advanced Kashida stretching or OpenType justification alternates, resulting in suboptimal line filling for Arabic text.[31][32] Solutions involve CSS properties such astext-justify: inter-word combined with font-feature-settings to activate features like 'jalt' (Justification Alternates), though implementation varies, with Firefox and Safari showing limited support for selective alternates, leading to indiscriminate glyph substitutions.[32][33]
Support for dynamic Kashida in variable fonts introduces further complexities, enabling continuous elongation along a dedicated axis like the proposed KSHD (Kashida), which extends connections without discrete glyphs. However, this requires careful integration to avoid conflicts with tracking mechanisms or cursive shaping, as excessive values can disrupt joins in tools like InDesign, and browser rendering often defaults to static glyphs rather than axis-based adjustments.[34] GPOS tables must be optimized for these variable paths, posing design hurdles in maintaining legibility across weight and width variations.
Established benchmarks like Adobe's Arabic font family demonstrate robust Kashida handling through multi-level alternates and contextual positioning, serving as a reference for developers. W3C recommendations emphasize the need for enhanced OpenType support in layout engines to prioritize Kashida over whitespace for authentic Arabic typography, highlighting ongoing gaps in web rendering standards.[12][36]
Modern Applications and Variations
Use in Mathematics and Notation
In Arabic mathematical notation, kashida serves to elongate specific characters and symbols within expressions, enhancing readability and alignment in right-to-left layouts without disrupting the cursive flow.[37] This technique is particularly useful in complex terms. A key application involves stretching operators such as summation () or product () symbols using curved kashida to match the horizontal span of adjacent subscripts or superscripts, adhering to traditional Arabic calligraphy principles for aesthetic balance.[37] In modern standards, kashida integration is supported in LaTeX through extensions such as RyDArab, enabling stretchable symbols in right-to-left equations. These tools ensure compatible rendering of elongated elements in digital mathematical documents.[38] Note that in digital contexts, tatweel (U+0640) provides a straight-line elongation alternative to traditional curved kashida, as outlined in W3C Arabic layout requirements for web and digital typography.[39]Adaptations in Digital Design and Branding
In digital design, Kashida plays a key role in user interface (UI) and user experience (UX) for Arabic-language applications, enabling responsive layouts by justifying right-to-left (RTL) text without relying on whitespace adjustments that can disrupt readability. Tools like Adobe InDesign support automatic Kashida insertion, allowing designers to select short, medium, long, or stylistic variants from the Paragraph panel to elongate characters in justified paragraphs, ensuring aesthetic balance in dynamic content such as mobile apps and websites.[36] Similarly, Adobe Illustrator's Middle Eastern edition facilitates Kashida handling through its Every-line Composer, which applies elongations to Arabic glyphs during vector-based design workflows, aiding custom extensions for responsive typography in graphic elements.[40] In branding, Kashida has been adapted to enhance cultural identity, as seen in the 2022 FIFA World Cup visual identity for Qatar, where Kasheeda—an Arabic elongation accent—was integrated into the brand typography to frame concept words and add dynamism through a system combining it with mosaic tiles for stadium dressing and motivational messaging.[41] Luxury brands like Kashida Design further incorporate Arabic calligraphy, drawing on elongation techniques to create bespoke home décor items such as wall art and furniture, blending traditional motifs with contemporary aesthetics to evoke Middle Eastern heritage in global markets.[21] Variations of Kashida extend to descendant scripts, promoting cultural resonance in regional digital media; for instance, in Urdu web design, tools like the Urdu Kasheeda Tool from Mehr Type enable precise insertion of elongations into Nastaliq fonts, facilitating justified layouts for websites and ensuring visual harmony in online content.[42] In Persian graphic design, kashida is applied to lengthen horizontal strokes, leveraging the script's compatibility for fluid, elongated forms that align with aesthetic traditions in print and digital campaigns.[43]References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kashida
- https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/[typography](/page/Typography)/script-development/arabic