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Sini (script)
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Sini (from Arabic: ٱلْخَطُ ٱلصِّينِيُّ, Al-khaṭ as-ṣīnī, lit. 'The Chinese script') is a calligraphic style used in China for the Arabic script. While Sini Script can refer to any type of Arabic Calligraphy influenced by Chinese Calligraphy, it exists on a spectrum in which the amount of Chinese influence increases as it is found further East.[1][2] While Sini script resembles thuluth script, it is adapted to local styles in Chinese Mosques.[3][4] Although Sini script exists on a broad spectrum, the most well-known form of Sini script, standardized during the Ming Dynasty, is characterized by its "round, flowing" Arabic letters featuring the "tapered" style more commonly found in Chinese calligraphy.[5] It is also characterized by its thick horizontal and fine vertical strokes, a result that is due to the use of a brush rather than a qalam, which is the traditional writing pen for Islamic calligraphy.[4]

One notable Sini calligrapher is Hajji Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang (b. 1963).[6][1]

Script styles

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Mosque inscriptions

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An entrance to the Worship Hall of Xi'an great mosque contains Sini calligraphy on a tasmiya placard.

In Chinese mosques, Sini calligraphy is found on a variety of different surfaces including walls, boards and tablets made from stone or wood, and pillars made of concrete or stone, particularly near the mihrab or prayer niche.[1] The wooden boards containing Sini calligraphy found at the entrance of the prayer hall often contain a "tasmiya" or invocation.[5] Sini calligraphy may be inscribed both horizontally or vertically depending on the surface.[1]

The vertical form of Sini Calligraphy, often found hanging on both sides of a doorway or on pillars, is influenced by the vertical style of Chinese calligraphy, particularly found in yinglian or duilian, the calligraphic artform of rhyming couplets.[1] A particularly distinct form of vertical Sini calligraphy can be achieved by following the Chinese tradition which contains the calligraphy within a box or square form and tilting it on its axis to form diamond-shaped calligraphy.[4] Examples of diamond-shaped Sini calligraphy can be found at the Great Mosque of Xi'an on columns flanking the prayer hall.

Objects

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Sini script is also found on various objects produced for both local use and to be exported to the Muslim world. The David Collection in Copenhagen includes examples of bronze objects including a double-handed vessel with Chinese imagery dating to the seventeenth century and a bronze incense burner made during the reign of Ming emperor Zhengde, both inscribed with Sini calligraphy.[7][8]

Manuscripts

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Among Islamic manuscripts in China, Sini script can be found in many Qur'ans produced in China throughout the Ming and Qing dynasties. Examples include a Qur'an from China dated to 1013/1605 in the Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art (QUR992) and a Qur'an from China dated to the 16th-18th century in the Tareq Rajab Museum (TSR-MS-11).[9] In these standardized 30-volume Qur'ans, most pages contain five to seven lines of script while the opening pages generally contain three lines. The script itself is generally large and wide-spaced. Although these Qur'ans may contain a variety of different scripts, the most frequently used script is derived from muhaqqaq.[9]

Specific calligraphic features separating Chinese Qur'anic script from its prototype may be noted. Certain letters from the Arabic alphabet are extended. For example, the tails of letters ra, za, waw as well as the terminals nun and sad rendered below the baseline extend further horizontally. Additionally, the initial of ba, particularly on the bismillah, tends to extend vertically yet in a curved manner. The terminal mim is rendered unconventionally, with either its tail hanging vertically rather than in parallel structure with the "sublinear" tails of other letters, or having a "curvilinear" form. In general, Chinese Qur'anic script contains more curlicues and sharper letter angles.

More decorative Sini calligraphy can be seen on the roundels exhibited on the double pages which precede each juz or section of the Qur'an. Depending on the Qur'an, the calligraphy may be more or less "Sinified." A greater influence of Chinese stylistic elements on script may reduce its legibility to those unfamiliar to it.[9]

Historical background

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Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368)

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Many Muslims migrated to China during the Mongol Chinggisid conquests which began the Yuan Era. During this era, the majority of the Muslim migrants consisted of soldiers employed by the Mongol rulers or craftspeople who were forced to relocate to China.[9] Further into the Yuan Era, in an attempt to prevent Chinese subjects from holding positions of power, Mongol rulers appointed intermediary government officials called semu guan, many of whom were Muslims from West and Central Asia.[10] This began a "golden period" in China for Muslims, who began to acquire great prestige and wealth.[9]

As a result, the semu guan became overseers of the commercial exchange of goods between Central and West Asia and China.[10] Some of the goods transferred during this era consisted of Qur'anic manuscripts from the late thirteenth century and fourteenth century which heavily followed the Ilkhanid tradition. These manuscripts became prototypes for Chinese Qur'anic manuscripts. Additionally, with their newfound wealth, Muslim officials became patrons of not only Chinese Qur'ans but of mosques upon which forms of Arabic calligraphy were inscribed.[9] As wealthy Muslims began to educate themselves in Chinese literature and calligraphy, they became pioneers of a new hybridized form of Islamic and Chinese art.[10]

Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644) and Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)

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During the Ming Dynasty, the number of Muslims migrating to China decreased. As a result, contact with Central and West Asia was reduced. This restricted the importation of new Safavid and Ottoman styles and works of art to China. Simultaneously, Han authorities began the process of Sinicization through intermarriage and language policies. This process was intensified during the Qing Dynasty. Despite this attempt of assimilation and acculturation, Muslim communities were able to retain the traditional Islamic art styles, drawing off of Ilkhanid archetypes particularly of Qur'ans, while creating a new hybridized derivation of Arabic and Chinese calligraphy.[9]

Many mosques were destroyed during the Qing Dynasty resulting in the destruction of many sources of Sini Calligraphy.[3]

Legacy

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In the 20th Century, as more Chinese-Muslim students began to study overseas, some began to view Sini Calligraphy as less "authentic" than its Arabic predecessors.[11] Despite this, certain twentieth and twenty-first century artists such as Hajji Noor Deen Mi Quangjiang have tried to perpetuate this art form.[6]

The Sini calligraphic tradition has continued among Xi'an Muslim Hui communities who have incorporated Sini into their daily lives. Some embrace the art of creating Sini calligraphy by taking classes while others display Sini in local settings such as restaurants, local shops and stores, as well as in their own houses.[6] To some, Sini calligraphy is seen as a means of performing and accommodating multiple identities of the Xi'an Hui Muslims.[6]

Diamond Sini Calligraphy on pillars lining the Xi'an Great Mosque prayer hall.
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  • The names of Allah in Chinese Arabic Sini Script
    The names of Allah in Chinese Arabic Sini Script
  • Quran with Chinese translation recorded in both Arabic script of Xiao'erjing and Chinese scripts
    Quran with Chinese translation recorded in both Arabic script of Xiao'erjing and Chinese scripts
  • Qur'anic Manuscript in Sini script
    Qur'anic Manuscript in Sini script
  • A book on law in Arabic, with a parallel Chinese translation in the Xiao'erjing Arabic script, published in Tashkent in 1899
    A book on law in Arabic, with a parallel Chinese translation in the Xiao'erjing Arabic script, published in Tashkent in 1899
  • Calligraphy on a plaque in the Great Mosque of Xi'an in Sini script
    Calligraphy on a plaque in the Great Mosque of Xi'an in Sini script
  • The Basmala in Sini script
    The Basmala in Sini script
  • Taḥmīd ("Praise be to God") in Arabic Ṣīnī-style calligraphy at the Great Mosque of Xi'an
    Taḥmīd ("Praise be to God") in Arabic Ṣīnī-style calligraphy at the Great Mosque of Xi'an

See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Sini (script)

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Sini script, also known as Sini calligraphy, is a unique style of Arabic writing that emerged among Chinese Muslims, particularly the Hui ethnic group, as a fusion of Islamic calligraphic traditions with Chinese artistic techniques. It features fluid, rounded letterforms with tapered strokes, often executed using broad brushes or wooden spatulas on rice paper, distinguishing it from the more angular styles of Middle Eastern scripts. This script primarily serves religious purposes, inscribing Qur'anic verses, invocations like the , and the in mosques, manuscripts, and decorative objects. The origins of Sini script trace back to the (1271–1368), when Muslim traders and migrants from and the settled in , introducing Arabic writing that began to adapt to local aesthetics. By the (1368–1644), it evolved into a fully distinct form, influenced by the script from the Mongol Ilkhan period and shaped by trade restrictions that isolated eastern Chinese Muslim communities from Persian and central Asian styles. Early examples appear in 14th- and 15th-century Qur'ans, gravestones, and mosque inscriptions, such as those in and Beijing's , reflecting the growing synthesis of with . Sini script's characteristics include curved, flowing lines with "slender ankles and fat feet," often arranged in motifs like peacock fans or diamond-shaped couplets, incorporating Chinese elements such as floral designs or fans alongside text. It flourished in eastern , adorning mosque entrances, mihrabs, and wooden carvings, while being less prevalent in northwestern regions like and . Much of this heritage faced destruction during the (1966–1976), but contemporary masters like Haji Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang continue to preserve and innovate the style, blending it with modern media. Today, Sini script symbolizes the enduring cultural identity of 's approximately 25 million , serving as a bridge between Islamic devotion and Chinese artistry.

Definition and Characteristics

Overview

Sini script is a Sinicized form of developed by Chinese Muslims, particularly the , as a means of religious and cultural expression within Islamic communities in . This calligraphic style adapts the Arabic alphabet to incorporate elements of Chinese artistic traditions, creating a hybrid that maintains the phonetic integrity of Arabic while embracing Sino-aesthetic principles. The term "Sini" derives from the Arabic word "Ṣīnī," meaning "Chinese," which highlights its origins as an adaptation of writing tailored to Chinese contexts and tools. Primarily employed to render Qur'anic verses, Islamic phrases such as the , and , Sini script achieves a visually harmonious blend of Islamic devotional content with Chinese calligraphic fluidity, often evoking a sense of cultural synthesis. Geographically, Sini script emerged and flourished primarily in eastern , such as in and , where it adorns mosques like the ; it is less prevalent in northwestern regions like and , though Hui Muslim populations are concentrated in the northwest. The degree of Chinese influence tends to increase from west to east across its usage areas. Artisans create it using traditional Chinese brushes on media such as paper, wood, or stone, resulting in characteristic thick horizontal strokes and thin verticals that mirror Chinese brushwork techniques while forming Arabic letters. This style bears a resemblance to the script in its elongated verticals and ornamental flow.

Stylistic Features

Sini script is characterized by its rounded, flowing letters that emphasize aesthetic , featuring exaggerated curves, lithe , and thick, tapered ink effects achieved through work, which contrast with the more uniform lines produced by the in traditional . These visual traits include slender "ankles" at the base of letters transitioning to broader, fat endings, often arranged in diamond-shaped or square formats that evoke Chinese compositional symmetry. Curlicues and extended horizontals further enhance the script's fluidity, sometimes incorporating a "flying white" effect from dry techniques that adds dynamic texture. Structurally, Sini adapts Arabic letters by elongating or compressing them to approximate the proportional balance of , resulting in a square or rectangular layout that facilitates formats common in Chinese inscriptions. This includes wrapping text around extended vertical strokes, such as the alif, to create symmetrical designs that integrate seamlessly with surrounding decorative elements. The script draws from Arabic bases in the thuluth and naskh styles, which provide its foundation, but modifies them through Chinese lanting influences—evident in the emphasis on rhythmic fluidity and balanced spacing reminiscent of Wang Xizhi's orchid pavilion aesthetics—for a more organic flow. These adaptations prioritize visual elegance over phonetic precision, with no alterations to the Arabic alphabet itself. Variations in Sini include horizontal arrangements read right-to-left in the manner, contrasted with vertical top-to-bottom orientations that align with Chinese reading conventions, allowing for bilingual visual interpretations in some compositions. Accents may employ red or white inks alongside black for seals and highlights, enhancing decorative contrast on supports like or . Technically, mastery of Sini requires rigorous training in brush control, often beginning with hand-copying classical texts in settings to develop the precise pressure variations that produce its characteristic thickness and taper. Tools traditionally include soft or hard Chinese brushes made from hair, wool, or plant fibers, though modern practitioners may use reed pens or wooden spatulas with carbon- or metal-based inks to maintain the script's distinctive aesthetic.

Historical Development

Early Influences and Yuan Dynasty

The presence of Islam in China began during the (618–907 CE), when Arab and Persian merchants arrived via the , introducing early forms of through trade and settlement. Limited examples of calligraphy from these Central Asian and Persian appeared on artifacts, such as an 8th- or 9th-century water pot from inscribed with "Allahu Akbar" in a simple cursive style, laying the groundwork for later adaptations without yet forming a distinct Sini style. During the subsequent (960–1279 CE), became more established, with Muslim communities in coastal cities like producing rudimentary Arabic inscriptions on tombstones, such as the 1171 CE grave marker of Alkhalt, which featured basic script forms influenced by Persian traders but still lacked the integrated Chinese elements characteristic of Sini. The emergence of Sini script occurred during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 CE), facilitated by the Mongol Empire's vast reach, which connected with Persia and and brought waves of Muslim officials and artisans—known as or "colored-eye" people—from regions like the Ilkhanid realm in Persia to serve in administrative roles. These migrants, including prominent figures like Sayyid Ajall Shams ad-Din, the governor of , and Jamal ad-Din, a scientist under , patronized the construction and decoration of mosques and the production of Qur'ans, blending the fluid Persian thuluth script with Chinese brush techniques to create Sini's distinctive rounded, tapered strokes and exaggerated curves. This fusion was enabled by the use of traditional Chinese tools, such as rice paper and broad es or wooden spatulas, which imparted a calligraphic akin to Chinese writing while preserving letter forms. During this period, the Huihui—Chinese Muslims formed through intermarriage and settlement of these earlier and new arrivals—began to solidify as a community, with Sini-like inscriptions appearing in religious and civic contexts, such as the expansions of the in , originally founded in 996 CE but enhanced in the Yuan era with blended architectural and calligraphic elements. The script served a socio-political function in bridging Arabic literacy with Chinese bureaucracy, appearing in documents, official seals, and religious texts produced by Muslim administrators who navigated both Islamic scholarship and imperial service. Notable early examples include Yuan-era Qur'ans and tombstones from 1310 CE and 1321 CE, which display initial Sinification through thick, brush-like endings and Ilkhanid-inspired proportions, marking the script's foundational multicultural synthesis.

Ming and Qing Dynasties

During the (1368–1644), reduced foreign contact following the end of Mongol rule fostered deeper among Chinese Muslim communities, leading to the standardization of Sini script into a distinctive "round, flowing" form characterized by thick, tapered strokes and Chinese brush techniques such as botiao and feibai effects. This evolution built on late Yuan foundations but emphasized adaptation to Chinese aesthetics, with Sini appearing on imperial-commissioned artifacts like blue-and-white porcelains and incense burners inscribed with devotional phrases such as the bismillah, particularly during the reign of the (r. 1505–1521), who favored Muslim concubines and showed interest in Muslim culture. Despite assimilation policies under the (r. 1368–1398), which stripped Muslims of prior privileges and enforced intermarriage with , Hui communities preserved Sini through private academies and madrasas, integrating Chinese poetic elements—like Confucian virtues—into Islamic inscriptions on plaques and mihrabs, such as a 1387 CE tombstone in featuring decorative Qur'anic verses. In the (1644–1911), Manchu rule intensified assimilation pressures, resulting in widespread mosque destructions and the survival of Sini primarily through hidden manuscripts that retained Ilkhanid archetypes, such as the rounded Thulth style influenced by Central Asian traditions. Hui scholars continued preservation efforts via in mosque schools (jingtang jiaoyu), adapting Sini for practical uses like tombstone engravings and family genealogies that blended Islamic and Chinese lineage records. Socio-cultural shifts under Qing policies favored Confucian literati, further eroding proficiency as Sini transitioned from a functional script for religious texts to a more decorative element in architecture and artifacts, exemplified by exaggerated curves in 18th-century Qur'an copies. This decline reflected broader challenges, including imperial edicts mandating Chinese surnames and limiting foreign Islamic influences, which confined Sini's role to symbolic expressions of Hui identity amid ongoing .

Uses and Examples

Architectural Inscriptions

Sini script has been prominently featured in the architectural decorations of Chinese mosques, where it adorns fixed elements such as wall panels, arches, and pillar engravings to convey religious texts and invocations. In these contexts, horizontal bands often display Qur'anic verses, while vertical arrangements highlight architect names or devotional phrases, integrating seamlessly into the structural design. This placement emphasizes the script's role in enhancing the spiritual ambiance of worship spaces, blending Islamic orthodoxy with local architectural forms like pagoda-style minarets. The techniques employed for these inscriptions include carving into wood or stone for durability and painting with brushes or gold accents for visual prominence, often creating diamond-shaped or tughra-like arrangements to draw emphasis on key phrases. For instance, in the prayer hall of the , built in 742 CE but featuring Sini inscriptions from the 14th to 18th centuries, wooden wall panels bear the full text of the Qur'an, while the arch is inscribed with the Shahadah and Surah al-Ikhlas amid floral motifs. Similarly, the (Cow Street Mosque) in displays Sini couplets and Koranic verses on prayer hall walls and window decorations, using a rounded, flowing style with thick-tapered strokes. Symbolically, these inscriptions serve to invoke divine protection and foster piety among worshippers, with phrases like the 99 names of Allah on pillars reminding the faithful of God's attributes. They often fuse with Chinese motifs, such as peacock fans in mihrabs, reflecting a harmonious Sino-Islamic aesthetic. The evolution of Sini in architectural inscriptions traces from functional labels in the (1279–1368 CE), where early forms appeared on stone tablets, to more ornate displays during the Ming (1368–1644 CE) and Qing (1644–1911 CE) dynasties, adapting to local materials like wood for intricate carvings and gold paint for elegance amid major renovations. This progression peaked in the Ming era, with standardized flowing scripts that emphasized cultural preservation under trade restrictions.

Manuscripts and Texts

Sini script manuscripts primarily encompass religious texts such as Qur'ans, books, and hagiographies, which were produced on rice paper using black and red inks by Hui Muslim communities in . These works reflect a fusion of Islamic devotional practices with Chinese material traditions, where rice paper provided a smooth, absorbent surface ideal for the flowing strokes of Sini . Black ink, often carbon-based from , formed the primary text, while red ink highlighted headings, diacritics, or decorative elements, enhancing readability and aesthetic appeal. Production occurred in workshops or madrasas led by Hui scribes, who adapted scripts like naskh and to Chinese brush techniques, resulting in distinctive features such as extended alifs and elongated horizontal tails that mimic brush dynamics. Decorative frames often enclosed text blocks, incorporating sinicized elements like cloud bands or geometric patterns. Ming and examples frequently feature illuminated margins with floral motifs, such as peonies or four-petalled designs in gold, green, and red inks, blending Islamic illumination with Chinese artistic conventions. These manuscripts were crafted with wood or pens to retain a brush-like appearance, emphasizing the script's rounded, expressive curves. The content of these manuscripts typically includes full surahs or selected ayahs from the Qur'an, arranged for recitation or study, with some prayer books containing supplications and hagiographies narrating the lives of prophets or saints. Bilingual -Chinese glosses appear in certain volumes, providing translations or explanations to aid comprehension among , often integrating alongside text. Notable examples include a Qur'an dated 1013 AH/1605 CE in the Nasser D. Khalili , showcasing early Sini flourishes on rice paper. An 18th-century Qing juz' in the exemplifies illuminated borders with star-shaped geometrics and floral cartouches in multi-colored inks. Additionally, a Sini Qur'anic from 11th century AH at the Tareq Rajab Museum features curlicue endings on letters, highlighting the script's playful extensions. Preservation of these manuscripts involved hiding them during periods of persecution, such as the , when many Islamic artifacts were destroyed or repurposed. They played a crucial role in for illiterate communities, facilitating communal readings of the 30-volume Qur'an sets and transmitting Islamic knowledge through visual and oral means.

Decorative Objects

Sini script adorns a variety of portable decorative objects, including vessels, burners, ceramics, and en plaques, extending its application from monumental and textual uses to everyday and artistic items in Hui Muslim communities. These inscriptions often convey blessings or denote ownership, serving both aesthetic and protective functions. The script is typically applied through or incising techniques on metal and , while ceramics feature underglaze inscriptions or overglaze enamels for durability and vibrancy. Frequently, Sini integrates with traditional Chinese motifs, such as dragons symbolizing power or lotuses representing purity, creating a hybrid that reflects cultural synthesis. Notable historical examples include a 16th-century incense burner from the Zhengde period (1506–1521), cast in with Sini inscriptions reciting " is the apostle of God," exemplifying early decorative use. Another is a 17th-century ewer inscribed with Sini phrases offering good wishes, produced for domestic or export markets. in holds similar incense burners and double-handled vessels featuring Sini script, highlighting the object's portability and appeal. In Hui households, these objects fulfilled talismanic roles, with inscriptions believed to ward off misfortune and invoke divine protection during daily rituals. Many such items, including blue-and-white ceramics, were exported via maritime trade routes to Muslim regions, adapting Sini aesthetics for broader Islamic markets and fostering cultural exchange. Artistic innovations in Sini decoration include arranging to outline object shapes, such as words forming a vase's or patterns on plaques, which enhance decorative flow. This approach blends Sini with Chinese painting styles, employing precise brushwork and layered motifs for a refined, illustrative effect.

Legacy and Modern Usage

Cultural Impact

The Sini script has served as a profound symbol of resilience for the Hui Muslim community, encapsulating their dual Chinese-Islamic identity amid centuries of in a non-Muslim majority society. By fusing with Chinese calligraphic techniques, such as rounded strokes and brush-like fluidity, Sini calligraphy enabled Hui Muslims to express religious devotion while aligning with local aesthetic norms, thereby fostering a sense of cultural continuity and endurance. This hybrid form paralleled the intellectual efforts in the Han Kitab tradition, where Hui scholars like Wang Daiyu and Liu Zhi bridged Islamic theology with Neo-Confucian philosophy, influencing poetry and philosophical discourse within Muslim communities by rendering concepts like (divine unity) in terms compatible with Confucian ethics of harmony and moral order. Sini script facilitated significant cross-cultural exchange by serving as a medium for transcribing and disseminating Arabic religious texts. This knowledge transfer not only enriched Hui scholarship but also influenced broader Chinese artistic practices, as evidenced by Sini inscriptions on , introducing fluid, non-angular scripts that blended with traditional motifs and enhanced intercultural artistic dialogue. Furthermore, its use in mosque decorations and merchant vessels underscored socio-economic ties, bolstering the status of Hui traders within expansive networks connecting to and beyond, where such artifacts symbolized reliability and cultural sophistication in commerce. Despite its cultural vitality, Sini script faced historical critiques for its hybrid character, with some observers noting a gradual dilution of its distinct "Chineseness" as connections to Islamic heartlands strengthened, potentially viewing it as insufficiently orthodox by purist standards. During the 20th-century , religious expressions including Sini endured suppression, yet were preserved through clandestine community education in scripture halls and family traditions, allowing a revival after China's 1978 reforms. Its broader legacy endures in global studies, inspiring analyses of adaptations and highlighting Hui contributions to multicultural resilience.

Contemporary Practice

The Sini script underwent significant decline during the Republican and early Communist eras in the 20th century, as political upheavals suppressed religious practices among China's Muslim communities, leading to reduced transmission of Arabic literacy and calligraphic traditions. This period saw a broader erosion of Islamic educational networks, where most Chinese Muslims lost proficiency in reading or Persian, further marginalizing specialized styles like Sini. A resurgence began after the economic reforms, as cultural policies encouraged the revival of ethnic minority heritages, including Hui Muslim arts, through promotion and relaxed restrictions on religious expression. Prominent contemporary artist Haji Noor Deen Mi Guangjiang (b. 1963), a Hui Muslim from Province, has played a pivotal role in revitalizing Sini calligraphy by integrating traditional techniques with modern innovations, such as digital design tools to enhance accessibility and aesthetic appeal. He began practicing calligraphy at age 18 and studied under a master teacher in for eight years, producing works that fuse Sini with global influences, exhibiting them internationally and establishing the Chinese House for the Arts of Islamic Arabic Calligraphy to foster cultural harmony. His pieces, including intricate renditions of Qur'anic verses, have been acquired by institutions like the , highlighting Sini's enduring artistic value. As of 2025, Mi Guangjiang continues to promote Sini through international exhibitions and workshops. In modern applications, Sini script appears in mosque restorations across regions like , where it adorns entrances and interiors to preserve historical aesthetics amid ongoing renovations. It also features in , such as decorative scrolls on and sold as cultural artifacts, blending religious motifs with contemporary for Hui communities and tourists. Challenges persist, particularly the declining Arabic literacy among Hui youth due to secular education priorities and generational shifts away from religious instruction, exacerbating the risk of Sini traditions fading. Sini's global reach extends through exhibitions in museums such as the , which holds historical and modern examples. Looking ahead, Sini is increasingly recognized as a key element of China's multicultural heritage, with potential for digital tools to aid preservation and broader dissemination among younger generations and international audiences.

References

  1. https://islamic-art.smb.museum/en/story/chinese_arabic_calligraphy
  2. http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/features.php?searchterm=005_calligraphy.inc&issue=005
  3. https://www.mei.edu/publications/islamic-calligraphy-china-images-and-histories
  4. https://news.cgtn.com/news/2024-04-10/Chart-of-the-Day-How-many-Muslims-are-there-in-China--1sGePTLpT4A/p.html
  5. https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/cc03ac61-3357-4f23-ad48-bdca84b1abbd/content
  6. https://www.academia.edu/18227993/Chinese_Islamic_Calligraphy
  7. https://www.hajinoordeen.com/sini-calligraphy
  8. https://www.orientations.com.hk/highlights/hwlush38moqfp7lhum7klblb2asssj
  9. https://www.chinachannel.larbpublishingworkshop.org/2018/01/09/seeing-sini/
  10. https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200904/from.middle.east.to.middle.kingdom.htm
  11. https://repository.wellesley.edu/_flysystem/fedora/2023-11/WCTC_2012_HuangMengyu_AwakeningCountryandF.pdf
  12. https://assets.cambridge.org/97810094/62679/excerpt/9781009462679_excerpt.pdf
  13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284795994_Sino-Arabic_script_and_architectural_inscriptions_in_Xi%27an_Great_Mosque_China
  14. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/890781
  15. https://trmkt.org/calligraphy-and-manuscripts/
  16. https://www.studocu.com/my/document/universiti-teknologi-mara/islamic-art/ath475-islamic-art-exploring-sini-calligraphy-and-its-significance/138076040
  17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307529770_Islam_in_China_The_Han_Kitab_Tradition_in_the_Writings_of_Wang_Daiyu_Ma_Zhu_and_Liu_Zhi_With_a_Note_on_Their_Relevance_for_Contemporary_Islam
  18. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/376004151_A_Semiotics_of_Muslimness_in_China
  19. https://journals.openedition.org/extremeorient/193
  20. https://herald.dawn.com/news/1153367/haji-noor-deen-mi-guang-jiang-signature-script
  21. https://www.montclairartmuseum.org/events/events-and-programs/haji-noor-deen-arabic-calligraphy-chinese-tradition
  22. https://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/features.php?searchterm=005_calligraphy.inc&issue=005
  23. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281224131_The_role_developments_and_challenges_of_Islamic_education_in_China
  24. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_2002-0729-0-1
  25. https://www.academia.edu/82775222/Sini_Calligraphy_The_Preservation_of_Chinese_Muslims_Cultural_Heritage
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