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Krueger flap
Krueger flap
Krueger flap
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Krueger flaps deployed from the leading edge of a Boeing 747 (top left and right in photo).

Krueger flaps, or Krüger flaps, are lift enhancement devices that may be fitted to the leading edge of an aircraft wing. Unlike slats or droop flaps, the main wing upper surface and its leading edge is not changed. Instead, a portion of the lower wing is rotated out in front of the main wing leading edge. The Boeing 707 and Boeing 747 used Krueger flaps on the wing leading edge. Several modern aircraft use Krueger flaps between the fuselage and closest engine, but use slats outboard of the closest engine. The Boeing 727 also used a mix of inboard Krueger flaps and outboard slats, although it had no engine between them.

Operation

[edit]

While the aerodynamic effect of Krueger flaps may be similar to that of slats or slots (in those cases where there is a gap or slot between the flap trailing edge and wing leading edge), they are deployed differently. Krueger flaps, hinged at their foremost position, hinge forwards from the under surface of the wing, increasing the wing camber and maximum coefficient of lift.[1] It produces a nose-up pitching moment. Conversely, slats extend forwards from the upper surface of the leading edge. Also, when deployed, Krueger flaps result in a much more pronounced blunt leading edge on the wing, helping to achieve better low-speed handling. This allows smaller-radius wing leading edges, better optimized for cruise. Leading edge Krueger flaps enhance wing's low speed lift production especially on swept wing aircraft. [2]

Variable camber Krueger flap

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The Krueger flaps developed for the Boeing 747 were constructed from fiberglass material and were designed to be intentionally distorted into a much more efficient aerofoil section on deployment.[3]

Invented by James B. Cole and Richard H. Weiland of Boeing in the mid-1960s,[4] the "VCK" (Variable Camber Krueger) flaps deployed from the lower leading edge of the wing similar to rigid panel Krueger flaps. The high-speed lower wing in that region of the wing is a straight line normal to the wing leading edge, so the stowed panels are nominally flat, albeit twisted a small amount along the leading edge of the wing. Using two sets of identical linkages per flap, the fiberglass panel is deployed and bent to an optimal aerodynamic shape for low speed flight, while a separate aluminum folding nose that is stowed inside the wing is deployed tangent to the fiberglass panel.[5]

The Boeing 747-8 wing was redesigned with optimized VCK flap panels that were similar to those on the original 747.

Another airplane that used VCK flaps was the Boeing YC-14.

History

[edit]

Krüger flaps were invented by Werner Krüger in 1943 and evaluated in the wind tunnels in Göttingen, Germany.[6] One of the earliest civil applications was the Boeing 707, whereas the Swiss company FFA claimed the first use of the flap in its FFA P-16 fighter which flew in 1955.[7] The flap was added to prevent wing stall with an extreme attitude take-off with the tail dragging on the runway, a scenario that had caused two de Havilland Comet accidents. A preliminary flight test had been made on the Boeing 367-80 (the Dash 80) using a fixed flap and a skid on the after-body.[8] After the Boeing test flight on the B-707 prototype on 15 July 1954, Krueger flaps were first used in production for the Boeing 727 which made its maiden flight on 9 February 1963.[9]

  • Krueger flap operation
    Krueger flap operation
  • Slat operation
    Slat operation

Boeing conducted a series of test flights in 2015 with a modified Boeing 757, incorporating new wing-leading-edge sections and an actively blown vertical tail.[10] The left wing was modified to include a 6.7 m-span glove section supporting a variable-camber Krueger flap to be deployed during landing, protruding just ahead of the leading edge. Although Krueger flaps had been tried before as insect-mitigation screens, previous designs caused additional drag. The newer design is variable-camber and retracts as seamlessly as possible into the lower wing surface. Increasing natural laminar flow (NLF) on an aircraft wing can reduce fuel burn by as much as 15%, but even small contaminants from insect remains could trip the flow from laminar to turbulent, destroying the performance benefit. The test flights were supported by the European airline group TUI AG and conducted jointly with NASA as part of the agency’s Environmentally Responsible Aviation (ERA) program.

See also

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References

[edit]

Sources

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Krueger flaps.
  • Taylor, John W.R. The Lore of Flight, London: Universal Books Ltd., 1990. ISBN 0-9509620-1-5.
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Krueger flap

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A Krueger flap is a type of high-lift device installed on the of an aircraft's , designed to increase lift by modifying the wing's camber during low-speed operations such as . It consists of a hinged panel mounted on the underside of the , which deploys forward and downward via actuators to extend the and enhance over the surface. Invented in 1943 by German engineer Werner Krüger to prevent wing stall in early designs, the device was initially evaluated in wind tunnels in , . Unlike slats, which slide forward to create a slot for , Krueger flaps pivot from the without forming such a gap, preserving the upper wing surface shape while still delaying and boosting lift coefficients. This mechanism is particularly effective on swept-wing , where it helps maintain control at high angles of attack by increasing the wing's effective curvature and reducing speed. The flaps contribute to shorter distances, improved performance in adverse weather, and overall efficiency during critical flight phases, though they introduce additional drag and require to mitigate vulnerability to debris or bird strikes. Historically, Krueger flaps served as the primary leading-edge high-lift system on early jet airliners, such as the series, marking a significant advancement in post-World War II technology. They remain in use on various modern aircraft, including the 737-700, 747, 777, and 787 models, often in combination with slats for optimized performance; for instance, on the 777 and 787, they seal gaps between inboard slats and engine struts. While predominantly associated with designs, their adoption underscores a preference for robust, mechanically simple leading-edge solutions in large commercial and .

Overview

Definition and Purpose

The Krueger flap, also known as a Krüger flap, is a type of high-lift device consisting of a hinged aerodynamic surface mounted on the underside of an wing's . When deployed, it rotates downward and forward via actuators, forming a slot-like gap that effectively extends the wing's and increases its camber. This design allows the flap to stow flush within the wing's lower surface during cruise, minimizing drag and maintaining aerodynamic efficiency. The primary purpose of the Krueger flap is to enhance the wing's low-speed performance by increasing the maximum (CLmax) and delaying the onset of , enabling safer and more efficient operations. By modifying the wing's effective camber and chord length, it redirects airflow over the , promoting attached flow at higher angles of attack and reducing the risk of . This is particularly vital for generating the additional lift required to support the aircraft's weight at reduced speeds without excessive drag penalties. Within high-lift systems, the Krueger flap serves as a leading-edge device distinct from trailing-edge flaps, which primarily augment rearward camber, and from slats, which typically extend forward from the upper surface to create a fixed gap. Its forward deployment from the lower surface preserves the smoothness of the upper contour, shielding the from debris while supporting control in advanced designs. Historically, the Krueger flap was developed to mitigate characteristics on swept- , where sweep reduces low-speed lift and promotes premature outboard due to increased effective and spanwise flow effects in early .

Basic Design Features

The Krueger flap consists of a primary hinged panel, often referred to as the Krueger panel, which forms the main lifting surface, along with a section that provides a rounded when deployed. These components are connected via a linkage including drive levers, drive links, and support brackets to enable precise movement. The pivot point is positioned near the wing's spar, typically at a of about 1.5% of the clean chord from the lower to accommodate stowage space. Construction materials for the hinged panel and bullnose are generally rigid, with traditional designs using aluminum alloys for strength and weight efficiency, while modern variants incorporate composite laminates such as carbon fiber or to reduce mass and enable complex shaping. Geometrically, the flap spans the inboard sections of the , covering approximately 20-30% of the semi-span in representative high-lift configurations, with a deployment that extends the effective chord by up to 20% through forward and downward rotation of 30-45 degrees relative to the stowed position. Integration occurs beneath the wing's lower skin within a dedicated stowage cavity, ensuring the upper surface remains smooth when retracted, and includes seals around the panel edges to minimize aerodynamic gaps during operation. Actuation is achieved through linkage systems driven by hydraulic or electric actuators, allowing scalable sizing based on type, such as smaller chords for regional jets or larger extensions for wide-body transports.

Types

Conventional Krueger Flap

The conventional Krueger flap employs a fixed camber profile, typically featuring a rigid bull-nose leading edge panel that maintains a constant shape upon deployment. This design utilizes a simple pivot located inside the wing's , allowing the flap to rotate forward and downward to a typical angle around 75°, without any adjustment to its camber or contour. Actuation of the conventional Krueger flap is generally achieved through hydraulic-driven mechanisms, including single linear actuators or rotary types, which extend the flap to its fixed deployment angle. Upon retraction, the flap folds back and stows flush within a cavity on the wing's lower surface, minimizing aerodynamic drag during cruise. This fixed-profile design provides key advantages over more advanced variants, including lower overall complexity due to fewer moving parts, generally reduced weight, and simpler maintenance requirements, enhancing reliability in operational environments. Common configurations of the conventional Krueger flap involve single-segment installations on the inboard sections of the , frequently paired with outboard slats to optimize high-lift on large commercial jets, as seen in like the 707 and 727.

Variable Camber Krueger Flap

The variable camber Krueger flap represents an advanced iteration of the Krueger flap , incorporating mechanisms that allow dynamic adjustment of the flap's during deployment to optimize aerodynamic across different flight phases. Unlike fixed-camber variants, this enables the flap to alter its shape mid-deployment, typically increasing camber by up to 10-15% through coordinated movement of the and trailing edge sections, thereby enhancing lift generation while minimizing induced drag. This adjustability is achieved via additional linkages and actuators integrated into the base hinge system, such as dual subassemblies with a rotatable drive arm that independently controls the flap's forward extension and rotational camber. Operationally, the variable camber Krueger flap supports multi-position deployment controlled by electric or hydraulic actuators, allowing precise adjustments to the . For instance, in takeoff configuration, the flap deploys to approximately 45 degrees with a sealed trailing edge to prioritize efficient climb performance, while for , it extends to approximately 30 degrees forming an aerodynamic slot for maximum lift at low speeds. These modes are powered by a rotating up to 162 degrees total, ensuring stable camber throughout the sequence without interfering with structures like de-icing systems. The system's controller sequences the positions—stowed for cruise, intermediate for transit, and fully extended for high-lift operations—to adapt to varying aerodynamic demands. The primary benefits of this flap type include reduced drag compared to conventional Krueger flaps, achieved through optimized camber that improves the overall wing efficiency and contributes to fuel savings during high-lift operations. This enhanced performance has made variable camber Krueger flaps suitable for certain commercial , such as the 747. However, the added complexity of the linkage and actuation systems results in increased flap weight, potentially raising overall aircraft and requirements. Additionally, the intricate mechanisms introduce reliability concerns, such as higher susceptibility to under aerodynamic loads and elevated costs due to the need for precise alignment and sealing.

Operation and Aerodynamics

Deployment Mechanism

The deployment of a Krueger flap is initiated by a signal from the aircraft's flight , which activates the to begin pivot rotation around a line positioned under the wing's lower . The flap panel then extends forward and downward, forming a gap with the , while torque arms or multi-link assemblies—such as four-bar or five-link mechanisms—guide the motion to prevent binding and ensure precise positioning of the section. This sequence allows the flap to achieve its deployed configuration, enhancing low-speed lift by deflecting over the . Actuation systems for Krueger flaps typically employ hydraulic rams, such as unbalanced double-acting linear actuators, or electromechanical drives powered by permanent magnet synchronous motors with geared rotary actuators in more advanced designs. These systems are synchronized across multiple flap segments spanning the wing via a central flight control computer, which coordinates commands to electronics and monitors positions through angular sensors to maintain uniform deployment and avoid asymmetric loading. For example, in sequential setups, inner flaps may deploy first, followed by outer ones, to manage aerodynamic and structural loads during transition. Retraction follows the reverse sequence, with the actuator drawing the flap panel back toward the wing, folding it into a recessed pocket or dry bay within the leading edge structure, where seals minimize aerodynamic drag and protect against environmental ingress. Safety features include fail-safe internal locks in the actuators that secure both deployed and retracted positions, preventing unintended motion due to system failures. Additionally, integration with flap load relief systems—monitored by airspeed sensors and the flight control computer—automatically initiates partial or full retraction if excessive aerodynamic loads are detected, safeguarding the structure during high-speed flight.

Aerodynamic Effects

The deployment of a Krueger flap enhances lift primarily by increasing the effective wing area through the extension of the leading edge device, typically by approximately 10%, and by altering the wing's camber to create a more favorable pressure distribution over the airfoil. This configuration allows for a notable rise in the maximum lift coefficient (C_{L_{max}}), often from about 1.2 for a clean wing to 1.8 or higher, enabling safer low-speed operations such as takeoff and landing. The lift increment (\Delta C_L) resulting from Krueger flap deployment can be approximated using the relation ΔCL=(cfcw)sin⁡(θ)\Delta C_L = \left( \frac{c_f}{c_w} \right) \sin(\theta) where cfc_f is the flap chord length, cwc_w is the wing chord length, and θ\theta is the deployment angle; this formula captures the contribution of the flap's projected vertical component to the overall normal force. By smoothing airflow attachment over the leading edge, the Krueger flap delays stall onset, postponing flow separation by 5 to 10 degrees in angle of attack compared to the undeflected wing, thereby extending the usable lift range at high angles. While deployment introduces additional profile drag due to the exposed flap surface and gap flows, it ultimately improves the (L/D) at elevated angles of attack by prioritizing lift gains over drag penalties in low-speed regimes. Flow visualization techniques, such as (PIV), reveal that the Krueger flap mitigates abrupt separation and on swept wings during low-speed flight, reducing the formation of shock-like pressure discontinuities and promoting more uniform attachment.

History and Development

Invention

The Krueger flap was invented in 1943 by Werner Krüger, a German engineer born in 1910, during as part of aerodynamic research conducted in . Krüger, working at the Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt (AVA) in , developed the device to mitigate on swept-wing aircraft designed for high-speed flight, a critical issue for maintaining lift during low-speed operations like . This innovation addressed the limitations of early swept wings, which suffered from premature airflow separation at the , by deploying a hinged panel to increase wing camber and delay . Initial development involved wind tunnel testing of prototype models at the AVA Göttingen facility, where systematic measurements demonstrated the flap's effectiveness in enhancing lift on laminar wing sections. Krüger's design featured a forward-pivoting mechanism that rotated a portion of the leading-edge lower surface outward and downward, improving airflow attachment by extending the leading edge without significantly increasing drag in the retracted position. These early tests confirmed the flap's potential for military applications, including Luftwaffe aircraft requiring balanced high-speed and low-speed performance. The invention was formalized through a granted in , detailing the forward-hinging flap as a high-lift device for camber modification on wings. Wartime constraints, including scarce resources, led to the use of aluminum for initial prototypes, limiting complexity but enabling validation of the core aerodynamic principles. Krüger's work laid the foundation for subsequent leading-edge high-lift technologies, with his 1947 NACA-translated report providing key data on nose flap performance from those early experiments.

Key Milestones and Adoption

Following , the (NACA) advanced Krueger flap technology through extensive testing in the 1950s, focusing on improving low-speed performance for high-speed swept-wing designs. Tests in facilities such as the 40- by 80-foot evaluated Krueger-type leading-edge devices alongside other high-lift mechanisms, demonstrating their ability to increase the lift coefficient by over 50% at landing attitudes compared to unflapped wings by adding camber and delaying stall. These efforts laid the groundwork for practical integration into prototypes. Boeing conducted the first flight tests of Krueger flaps on its 707 prototype in 1954, marking a key transition from laboratory validation to real-world application in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Commercial adoption accelerated with the 's entry into service in 1958, where simple hinged Krueger flaps were installed on inboard wing sections to enhance lift during without compromising cruise efficiency. This was followed by broader implementation on the , introduced in 1970, which employed variable-camber Krueger flaps across much of the , including folding bull-nose designs that deployed to angles up to 84 degrees for superior aerodynamic performance. In the 1980s, Krueger flap designs evolved with the incorporation of advanced materials, including composites, to achieve significant weight reductions while maintaining structural integrity and lift capabilities; for instance, the , certified in 1986, utilized Krueger flaps in its high-lift system as part of this shift toward lighter, more efficient components. Military applications emerged in the 1990s, with Krueger flaps fitted to transport aircraft like the to support short-field operations by enabling steeper approaches and lower stall speeds. More recently, the Boeing 787, entering service in 2011, integrated seal Krueger flaps with its flight control system, enabling automated, precise deployment synchronized with other high-lift surfaces for optimized low-speed handling.

Applications

Notable Aircraft

The utilizes Krueger flaps on the inboard leading edge of each wing, configured as four panels to enhance low-speed lift during takeoff and landing. These flaps deploy from the underside of the wing, covering approximately the inner portion between the and the inboard engines. The 747-8 incorporates redesigned Krueger flaps as part of its updated high-lift system for improved aerodynamic performance. The and 787 employ variable camber Krueger flaps, which feature a flexible trailing edge panel that adjusts camber for optimized lift generation. On these aircraft, the Krueger flaps are positioned inboard, sealing the gap between the fuselage-side and the engine pylon, typically spanning about 20-30% of the wing's to accommodate the engine nacelle's interference with airflow. This configuration allows for efficient deployment without disrupting the upper wing surface. In military applications, the incorporates Krueger-type flaps along the to support its short requirements. Configurations like these are common for Krueger flaps, generally spanning 20-40% of the wing to target regions where slats are less effective due to structural or airflow constraints.

Performance Advantages and Limitations

Krueger flaps enhance low-speed lift by increasing wing camber and effective area by approximately 9%, which contributes to improved aircraft performance during takeoff and landing phases. This lift augmentation allows for reduced stall speeds and can shorten takeoff and landing distances compared to unflapped configurations, with studies indicating potential payload benefits equivalent to 2800 pounds from a 1% improvement in takeoff lift-to-drag ratio. Additionally, Krueger flaps maintain smoother airflow over the upper wing surface than traditional slats, resulting in noise reductions of 4 to 6 dB in dominant tones during approach, making them suitable for noise-sensitive operations. Despite these benefits, Krueger flaps introduce limitations related to weight and structural complexity. The flap panels weigh about 1.5 pounds per for fixed-camber Krueger flaps and 2.1 pounds per for variable-camber Krueger flaps, representing a modest but notable increase relative to mass in , such as around 2300 to 2700 pounds for a 777-sized . The mechanisms, often involving hinges and linkages, are prone to wear and require regular to prevent issues like misalignment or drag penalties from distortion under load. Furthermore, their forward-extending deployment exposes them to higher risks of damage from strikes or compared to recessed slats. In comparisons, Krueger flaps excel over slats in generating inboard lift with lower local drag coefficients (e.g., 0.043 versus 0.049 at high angles of attack), though they provide less uniform enhancement across outboard wing sections. Relative to Fowler flaps, they offer superior leading-edge delay but trade off some overall high-lift efficiency due to limited deployment angles, typically two-position versus multi-position slat systems. Modern designs mitigate these drawbacks through material advancements and aerodynamic aids. The use of thermoplastic composites in Krueger flap construction reduces overall weight while improving recyclability and durability against impacts. Integration with vortex generators further enhances efficiency by controlling and boosting lift-to-drag ratios up to 8.7 at moderate lift coefficients, minimizing energy losses during deployment.

References

  1. https://skybrary.aero/articles/krueger-flaps
  2. https://monroeaerospace.com/blog/what-are-krueger-flaps-and-how-do-they-work/
  3. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20170000311/downloads/20170000311.pdf
  4. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20160009106/downloads/20160009106.pdf
  5. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19960052267/downloads/19960052267.pdf
  6. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/2526/1/012006/pdf
  7. https://www.boeing.com/commercial/747-8/design-highlights
  8. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0263822302001095
  9. https://www.icas.org/icas_archive/ICAS2018/data/papers/ICAS2018_0258_paper.pdf
  10. https://patents.google.com/patent/US7578484B2/en
  11. https://www.dglr.de/publikationen/2024/630021.pdf
  12. https://www.eucass.eu/doi/EUCASS2022-6067.pdf
  13. https://patents.google.com/patent/US5158252A/en
  14. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19810003508/downloads/19810003508.pdf
  15. https://patents.google.com/patent/US9016637B2/en
  16. https://aviation.stackexchange.com/questions/70593/why-are-krueger-flaps-called-flaps-and-not-slats
  17. http://www.fimac.aero/products/hydraulic/item/krueger-flap-actuator.html
  18. http://www.b737.org.uk/flightcontrols.htm
  19. https://aviation.stackexchange.com/questions/239/how-does-a-flap-load-relief-system-work
  20. https://www.icas.org/icas_archive/ICAS2018/data/papers/ICAS2018_0098_paper.pdf
  21. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19780022107/downloads/19780022107.pdf
  22. http://www.heimbs-online.de/Heimbs_2015_Simulia.pdf
  23. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/leading-edge-flap
  24. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc53352/
  25. https://elib.dlr.de/105717/1/DLRK2015_370087_postref_preprint.pdf
  26. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279753232_Bird_Strike_Analysis_for_Impact-Resistant_Design_of_Aircraft_Wing_Krueger_Flap
  27. https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/Low-Speed-Research-on-High-Speed-Wings-1950.pdf
  28. https://www.easa.europa.eu/en/downloads/17067/en
  29. https://polot.net/en/mc-donnell-douglas-boeing-c-17-globemaster-iii-2010-1001
  30. http://www.icas.org/icas_archive/ICAS2018/data/papers/ICAS2018_0098_paper.pdf
  31. https://research.chalmers.se/en/publication/548419
  32. https://cordis.europa.eu/article/id/442945-new-aeroplane-wing-flap-improves-flight-performance
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