Hubbry Logo
Kulothunga IIKulothunga IIMain
Open search
Kulothunga II
Community hub
Kulothunga II
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Kulothunga II
Kulothunga II
Kulothunga II
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Key Information

Kulothunga II (died 1150 CE) was a Chola Emperor from 1133 CE to 1150 CE. He succeeded Vikrama Chola to the throne in 1135 CE. Vikrama Chola made Kulothunga his heir apparent and coregent in 1133 CE, so the inscriptions of Kulothunga II count his reign from 1133 CE.[1] According to historians Nilakanta Sastri and T.N Subramanian, Kulottunga Chola II was not the son of Vikrama Chola and they have suggested that there was a break in the line of succession.[2]

Personal life and family

[edit]

Kulothunga II preferred to live in Chidambaram rather than the royal capital at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Of the various titles he had, Anapaaya was perhaps his favourite. It is found in his inscriptions as well in the poetic tribute Kulothunga Cholan Ula.[3] He was also called Tirunirruchola.[4]

Kulothunga II was succeeded by Rajaraja Chola II in 1150 CE.

Extent of Empire

[edit]
Chola territories c. 1150 CE

The extent of empire as inherited from his predecessor Vikrama Chola was well maintained. The Western Chalukya kingdom was overthrown by the Yadava chiefs of Devagiri and Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra during this period. Kulottunga II took advantage of the internal skirmishes and rebellions in the Kannada and Chalukya country to establish his hold over Vengi and Eastern Chalukya territories. Gonka II of the Velanadu Choda family who ruled over northern part of Vengi acknowledged his supremacy. Similarly the Kadapa-Nellore chief, Madurantaka Pottapi Choda, son of Betta I and Buddhavarman III of the Kondavidu branch and his son Mandaya II also acknowledged the king's authority in the Andhra country.[5]

Patron of Chidambaram

[edit]

Chidambaram is one of those five places where Chola princes were invested with the crown. Kulothunga was a great devotee of the Chidambaram Temple to Lord Shiva in that city, and he celebrated his coronation there. An inscription of the emperor from Tirumanikuli hails this event and states that the emperor celebrated his coronation so as to add lustre to the city of Tillai (Chidambaram).[6]

He also financed an elaborate renovation of the temple as described in the poem Kulothunga Cholan Ula. It is possible that this renovation work was a continuation of work started by Vikrama Chola. Kulottunga II is credited with gilding the Perambalam of the Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram with gold. He is also said to have constructed its gopurams and the Thousand Pillared Hall.[7][8]

Chidambaram Temple as seen in 1913.

Literature

[edit]

Kulottunga Chola II's reign was marked by literary activity as evidenced by the works of Sekkizhar and Ottakoothar.[9] Sekkizhar composed the Periyapuranam, a religious treatise on Shaivism during his reign.[10] The Kulottunga Cholan Ula and the Kulottunga Cholan Pillai Tamil, a work dealing with the emperor's childhood were authored by Ottakoothar in honor of the emperor.[11]

Persecution of Vaishnavas

[edit]

Some scholars identify Kulothunga II with Krimikanta Chola or worm-necked Chola so called as he is said to have suffered from cancer of the throat or neck. The latter finds mention in the Vaishnava Guruparampara and is said to have been a strong opponent of the Vaishnavas. The work Parpannamritam (17th century) refers to the Chola king called Krimikanta who is said to have removed the Govindaraja idol from the Chidambaram Nataraja temple.[12] The Kulothunga Cholan Ula states that during the reign of Kulottunga II, God Vishnu was sent back to his original abode, that is the sea (i.e the Govindaraja idol was thrown into the sea).[13] However, according to "Koil Olugu" (temple records) of the Srirangam temple, Kulottunga Chola was the son of Krimikanta Chola. The former, unlike his father, is said to have been a repentant son who supported Vaishnavism.[14][15] Ramanuja is said to have made Kulottunga II as a disciple of his nephew, Dasarathi. The king then granted the management of the Ranganathaswamy temple to Dasarathi and his descendants as per the wish of Ramanuja.[16][17]

Inscriptions

[edit]

The Tyagarajaswami temple in Tiruvarur contains an inscription of the emperor in which he styles himself as Anapaaya and a bee at the lotus feet of Natesa at Chidambaram.[3] As per the Muchukundasahasranamam, Anapaaya Mahipaala is another name of the deity Thyagaraja of Thiruvarur.[18]

[edit]

In the film Dasavathaaram (2008), actor Napoleon plays the role of Kulothunga Chola II.

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Kulothunga II

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

Kulothunga II (died c. 1150 CE), also known as Tiruchirru Chola, was a monarch of the in southern who served as co-regent from 1133 CE and sole emperor from 1135 to 1150 CE, succeeding his father . His rule preserved the expansive Chola territories, including core regions south of the and influences in , amid a period of relative internal stability following prior expansions. Kulothunga II prioritized administrative continuity and religious patronage over extensive military campaigns, capturing limited eastern territories such as from the to consolidate power. He resided primarily in rather than the traditional capital of , reflecting his deep devotion to , and commissioned significant works including the renovation of the Temple, where he raised its iconic gopurams and financed repairs. Inscriptions from his era record endowments to temples, such as land grants, precious metals, and livestock, underscoring his support for Shaivite institutions and cultural projects like the Thiru Thondar Puranam by Sekkizhar. A devout Shaivite, Kulothunga II's policies have sparked debate; some inscriptions and accounts suggest he temporarily relocated a idol from the temple during renovations, interpreted by critics as bias against , though contemporaries dispute this as mere logistical necessity rather than . He was succeeded by his son Rajaraja Chola II, maintaining dynastic continuity amid emerging pressures from neighboring powers.

Early Life and Ascension

Birth and Family Background

Kulothunga II was born in , the Chola imperial capital in present-day Jayankondam, , though the precise date remains unrecorded in epigraphic or literary sources. He was the son and designated heir of (r. 1118–1135 CE), who appointed him co-regent in 1133 CE, as evidenced by contemporary inscriptions that reckon Kulothunga II's regnal years from that point. was himself the son of Kulothunga Chola I (r. 1070–1122 CE), placing Kulothunga II within the Chalukya Chola line that originated from the marriage alliances between the and the of . Details on his mother and any siblings are sparse, with no direct references in known Chola inscriptions; however, Vikrama Chola's queens included figures like Thiagapadagai and Mukkokilanadigal, active in endowments around 1127 CE, though their maternity to Kulothunga II is unattested. This familial continuity reinforced the dynasty's claim to legitimacy amid the later Chola period's administrative stability.

Path to the Throne

Kulothunga II, the son of , followed the established line of succession within the Later . In 1133 CE, appointed him as and co-regent, marking the formal start of his regnal years and integrating him into the governance structure. continued to rule for at least two additional years, providing Kulothunga II with administrative experience before his full ascension. Upon his father's death in 1135 CE, Kulothunga II succeeded to the without recorded opposition, maintaining the dynasty's continuity and . Inscriptions indicate a possible coronation ceremony at , underscoring the ritual significance of the transition, though primary administrative functions were centered at Gangaikondacholapuram. This untroubled path reflected the stability of the Chalukya-Chola branch, free from the internecine conflicts that had occasionally plagued earlier successions.

Reign and Empire Management

Territorial Extent and Boundaries

Kulothunga II, ruling from 1133 to 1150 CE, inherited and largely maintained the extensive established by his predecessors, encompassing core territories in modern-day including , Tondai Nadu, and portions of . The empire's heartland centered on the fertile Kaveri River delta, supporting agricultural prosperity and administrative hubs like and . Northern boundaries reached into the region of present-day , where Kulothunga II exploited Eastern Chalukya instability to seize control temporarily around the mid-1140s, though these gains were short-lived due to subsequent Chalukya resurgence. Inscriptions from his reign record administrative oversight and land grants in these frontier areas, affirming nominal Chola authority up to the Krishna-Godavari basin at peak influence. To the west, the empire's frontiers abutted the rising in southern , with Kulothunga II compelling submission from Yadava chiefs in and engaging defensive campaigns against Hoysala incursions, thereby securing tribute and border stability without significant expansion. Southern limits pressed against Pandya territories in southern , marked by recurrent conflicts that prevented deeper incursions but preserved Chola dominance over Trichy and peripheries. Eastern seaboard control extended along the , facilitating maritime trade, while western extensions into involved over Chera polities, evidenced by tribute payments that reinforced Chola overlordship without direct annexation. Overall, Kulothunga II's reign emphasized defensive consolidation over , with boundaries defined by loyalties and military deterrence rather than permanent territorial reconfiguration.

Military Engagements and Defenses

Kulothunga II's reign from 1133 to 1150 CE was marked by relative stability and a notable absence of large-scale military campaigns, distinguishing it from the expansionist eras of earlier Chola rulers. Historical accounts emphasize that he prioritized administrative consolidation over aggressive conquests, allowing the empire to recover from prior conflicts without provoking major wars. Opportunistic territorial adjustments occurred amid the collapse of the Western Chalukya kingdom, which fell to the Yadavas of Devagiri and Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra around this period. Kulothunga II exploited the resulting to annex the region and portions of the Eastern Chalukya territories, integrating them temporarily into Chola domains. These acquisitions, however, proved ephemeral, as Hoysala forces soon reclaimed , highlighting the limits of Chola influence in the Telugu country without sustained commitment. Defensive strategies under Kulothunga II relied on the robust infrastructure inherited from , including fortified frontiers and a capable of deterring incursions from rivals like the Pandyas to the south and emerging Hoysala powers to the west. Inscriptions from his era, while abundant in administrative details, contain no references to defensive battles or invasions repelled, suggesting effective and border vigilance prevented escalation. This era of quiescence preserved Chola resources for internal , though it foreshadowed vulnerabilities exploited by successors' adversaries.

Administration and Governance

Economic Policies and Infrastructure

Kulothunga II's economic policies emphasized the maintenance of agrarian productivity and temple-centered revenue systems, as recorded in contemporary inscriptions. Land revenue formed the core of the empire's , with taxes typically levied at one-sixth of the agricultural produce, collected or to fund , , and religious institutions. In 1146 CE, he donated 1.5 ma (a measure of ) to support offerings at the Udaya Pillaiyar sub-shrine of a temple, directing the income toward perpetual provisions. The following year, in 1147 CE, he 23.75 ma of wet and 43.25 ma of dry —totaling 67 ma—expected to yield 1,000 kalam of paddy annually for temple rituals, including daily rice preparations and festival foods. These included tax exemptions (varikuru) on the donated lands, reducing fiscal burdens on beneficiaries while channeling surplus to religious endowments that bolstered local economies. Infrastructure development under Kulothunga II focused on to sustain , with temples acting as hubs for management. He renovated the Adavalleswarar temple, including its mahamandapa and sub-shrines, and established the Abhimana Meru fitted with 5–6 shutters to regulate flow. This canal irrigated over 16 saduraam (approximately 16 hectares) of farmland, with oversight by temple authorities and local assemblies (sabhaiyars) ensuring maintenance and crop yields. Such initiatives reflected the Chola tradition of state-supported , where local committees like eri-variyam ( committees) managed reservoirs and channels to mitigate risks and enhance productivity. Revenue from irrigated lands, alongside duties (sungam) on , supported these efforts, though inscriptions from his reign prioritize internal agrarian stability over expansive maritime commerce.

Inscriptions and Administrative Records

Numerous stone inscriptions attributed to Kulothunga II's reign (1133–1150 CE) have been documented in the South Indian Inscriptions series by the , primarily engraved on temple walls in regions such as , , and Tiruvarur. These epigraphs, typically in Tamil with occasional for portions, record administrative acts including land endowments to Brahmins, tax exemptions (parrukku), and provisions for temple rituals, reflecting a focused on religious and . Dates are given in regnal years, aiding chronological precision; for example, records from his 7th year (1139–1140 CE) at mention officials like Kōvaṇavar overseeing temple affairs, indicating structured bureaucratic oversight of sacred sites. Key administrative records detail fiscal policies, such as the assignment of village revenues (erivari) for perpetual lamps and festivals, as seen in an inscription from the 10th (1142–1143 CE) at Virarajendrapuram (modern Sanbai), which documents the donation of 64 cows to sustain two lamps in the Tantonri-Aludaiyar temple, funded through nadu-level assemblies (sabha). Such often involved surveys of wet (nanmai) and dry (punsei) lands, with inscriptions specifying shares for maintenance via eri (tanks), underscoring the Chola emphasis on agrarian to ensure steady temple income amid feudal obligations. Copper-plate , rarer for Kulothunga II compared to earlier rulers, appear in isolated cases for larger territorial concessions, though stone prasastis dominate as verifiable primary evidence of royal orders (sasanam). Inscriptions also preserve records of judicial and revenue administration, including disputes resolved by royal officials (adhikaris) and remissions to mitigate famines or invasions, with Kulothunga II's titles like Tribhuvanachakravartin invoked to legitimize decrees. These epigraphs reveal a continuity in Chola administrative divisions—valanadu, nadu, and kurram—where local bodies managed devadana lands, with central oversight via periodic audits (kanikkadanam). Temple records (koil olugu) from Srirangam corroborate stone inscriptions, noting endowments that supported Shaivite institutions, though fewer survive intact due to later Vijayanagara overlays. Overall, these sources affirm efficient record-keeping, with over a dozen dated inscriptions from his era providing granular data on endowments totaling hundreds of kalam of paddy annually for priestly sustenance.

Religious Policies

Devotion to Shaivism and Temple Patronage

Kulothunga II exhibited profound devotion to , manifested through his patronage of key religious texts and temple enhancements during his reign from 1133 to 1150 CE. He commissioned the Periyapuranam, a comprehensive of the 63 (Shaiva saints) authored by his court poet Sekkizhar, which served as a foundational work promoting Shaiva and theological principles. This text, composed under royal auspices, emphasized ethical devotion to and influenced subsequent Tamil Shaiva literature. His temple patronage focused prominently on the Nataraja Temple in , a central Shaiva pilgrimage site dedicated to as , the cosmic dancer. Kulothunga II oversaw the construction of the temple's four towering gopurams (gateway pyramids), significantly expanding its architectural scale and visibility. Additionally, he gilded the Perambalam—the sacred golden-roofed hall housing ritual processions—with gold plating, enhancing its sanctity and opulence for Shaiva liturgical practices. These endowments, documented in contemporary inscriptions and literary accounts like the Kulothunga Cholan Ula, reflect a deliberate investment in Shaiva institutional infrastructure amid the Chola Empire's cultural zenith. Such patronage aligned with broader Chola traditions of royal support for , yet Kulothunga II's initiatives at stand out for their scale, reinforcing the temple's role as a pan-South Indian Shaiva center. Inscriptions from his era further record land grants and resources allocated to Shaiva establishments, sustaining priestly services and festivals.

Relations with Vaishnavism and Associated Controversies

Kulothunga II, reigning from 1133 to 1150 CE, exhibited a pronounced devotion to , commissioning the Periyapuranam by Sekkizhar, a hagiographic compilation glorifying Shaiva saints and emphasizing Shiva's supremacy over other deities. This textual emphasis on Shaiva orthodoxy, as reflected in court poetry like the Kulothunga Cholan Ula, contributed to perceptions of tension with , though epigraphic records from his reign primarily document endowments to Shaiva temples such as Chidambaram's Thillai . No inscriptions directly attest to systematic suppression of Vaishnava practices, and the Chola dynasty's broader history shows of both sects, with earlier rulers like funding Vaishnava shrines alongside Shaiva ones. A key controversy involves the removal of the Govindaraja Perumal idol—a Vishnu manifestation—from the Chidambaram temple complex during his rule. The Kulothunga Cholan Ula describes Vishnu being "sent back to his original abode" in the sea, interpreted by later Vaishnava traditions as an act of desecration or immersion to assert Shaiva dominance in a premier Shaiva site. Historical accounts, including temple lore, link this to efforts to "purify" the space, possibly amid sectarian disputes over the idol's installation there circa 1130 CE by Ramanuja's followers, but primary evidence remains literary rather than inscriptional, with no contemporary records confirming violence or forced expulsion. Sri Vaishnava hagiographies, such as those in the Guru Parampara traditions, amplify this as persecution, associating Kulothunga II with the epithet "Krimikantha Chola" (worm-necked Chola), allegedly due to a curse or disease afflicting a Vaishnava antagonist. This identification fuels debate, as timelines overlap with Ramanujacharya's later years (d. ca. 1137 CE), during which hagiographies claim he fled Chola domains to the Hoysala court to evade execution for refusing to affirm Shiva's supremacy. Scholarly consensus questions the equation, noting Krimikantha's attributes (e.g., affliction) do not align with known details of Kulothunga II's life or inscriptions, which portray him as a stable administrator without references to such personal maladies or overt . Vaishnava sources, rooted in devotional narratives, exhibit potential bias toward dramatizing threats to emphasize Ramanuja's sanctity, while Shaiva texts like the Ula celebrate doctrinal assertions without admitting . Absent corroborative —unlike abundant records of temple grants—the incident likely reflects localized temple politics or symbolic reassertion of Shaiva primacy rather than empire-wide intolerance, consistent with Chola precedents of coexisting sects under royal oversight.

Cultural and Literary Contributions

Patronage of Tamil Literature

Kulothunga II (r. 1133–1150 CE) supported Tamil literary endeavors, fostering works that blended royal panegyric with Shaivite devotion. His court hosted poets whose compositions praised the monarch while advancing bhakti traditions. Sekkizhar, a contemporary courtier and Shaivite devotee, composed the Periya Purāṇam during this period, a comprehensive hagiography in 4,236 Tamil verses recounting the lives and miracles of the 63 Nayanars. This text, finalized at the Chidambaram Nataraja Temple, synthesized earlier Shaivite lore into a unified narrative, emphasizing devotion over ritualism, and received implicit royal endorsement through its prominence in Chola Shaivism. Ottakoothar, the royal and minister, dedicated Kulothuṅgaṉ Piḷḷai Tamiḻ to the king, employing the piḷḷai tamiḻ —a structured poetic form likening the patron to a —to Kulothunga II's virtues and achievements. Ottakoothar also authored Kulothunga Cholaṉ Uḷā, a processional poem (uḷā) celebrating the king's grandeur, which highlighted military prowess and administrative acumen in vivid Tamil verse. These literary outputs, produced amid political stability, underscore Kulothunga II's role in sustaining the Chola tradition of patronizing Tamil scholarship, though direct inscriptions specifying grants are scarce compared to temple endowments. The works' focus on aligned with the king's religious policies, reinforcing cultural cohesion in the empire.

Artistic and Architectural Endeavors

Kulothunga II (r. 1133–1150 CE) contributed significantly to Chola architectural heritage through his patronage of temple renovations, most notably at the in . He financed an extensive overhaul of the shrine, which included elevating the four towering gopurams (gateway towers) that define the temple's silhouette. This work aligned with his Shaivite devotion, enhancing the temple's status as a premier center for worship. Inscriptions from his reign document specific endowments supporting temple maintenance and expansion, such as a grant of ¾ veli of land at Nallaraisur to the Urudaiya-Paramesvarar temple by a subordinate under royal auspices. These records, preserved in epigraphic collections, reflect a pattern of fiscal support for religious infrastructure, ensuring ritual continuity and architectural preservation amid the dynasty's later phases. While direct attributions of sculptures to Kulothunga II's era are scarce compared to earlier Chola rulers, his temple initiatives likely facilitated the integration of such metal icons into renovated spaces, continuing the tradition of for deities like . The Kulothunga Cholan Ula, a contemporary poetic , chronicles these endeavors, underscoring the king's role in blending piety with monumental construction.

Death, Succession, and Legacy

Final Years and Demise

Kulothunga II's later reign emphasized consolidation of administrative control and religious endowments rather than military expansion, with inscriptions recording the restoration of Chola over the region through grants documented in the Chelluru plates. He devoted significant attention to the temple at , gilding its Perambalam structure and facilitating donations from local chiefs such as Mohan Alkolli during the closing years of his rule, reflecting his personal Shaivite piety. Contemporary records indicate he spent much of his time in , away from the capital at Gangaikondacholapuram. Kulothunga II died in 1150 CE in , concluding a reign of about 17 years that succeeded his father Vikrama Chola's tenure. No inscriptions or accounts specify the , but his is characterized by internal stability without noted upheavals. He was promptly succeeded by his son, Rajaraja Chola II, whom he had earlier appointed as co-regent, ensuring a smooth dynastic transition.

Historical Assessment and Depictions

Kulothunga II's reign from 1133 to 1150 CE is historically assessed as a phase of consolidation and stability for the , succeeding the more expansionist policies of his predecessors. Historians note that he effectively maintained the territorial extent inherited from his father, , without pursuing significant military conquests, instead prioritizing administrative efficiency and internal security. This included suppressing localized rebellions, such as those among Sinhalese forces in during his early years, and securing loyalty from feudatories like the Yadava chiefs of through diplomatic and occasional coercive measures. In terms of religious policy, contemporary Chola inscriptions portray Kulothunga II as a devout Shaivite who lavishly patronized temples, particularly the shrine at , where he resided preferentially over the capital and contributed to the inner sanctum (perambalam) with gold plates. Epigraphic records from sites like Tirumanikuli document his celebrations tied to temple rituals, emphasizing his role as a protector of Shaiva institutions. However, later sectarian narratives, especially in Sri Vaishnava hagiographies of Ramanujacharya, depict him as a persecutor of Vaishnavites, associating him with the derogatory title "Krimikanta Chola" (worm-necked king) and alleging actions like the removal of a idol from . These accounts lack direct support from neutral epigraphic evidence or Chola administrative records, which instead highlight balanced patronage without indications of systematic intolerance. Depictions of Kulothunga II in include stone sculptures at patronized temples, such as potential portraits in Shaiva emphasizing royal piety and martial poise, though specific attributions remain tentative without unambiguous inscriptions. Literary references in Tamil works from his era, including poetic tributes using his favored title "Anapaya" (the incomparable one), reinforce his as a benevolent sovereign aligned with Shaiva . Modern scholarly evaluations, drawing from sources like Epigraphia Indica compilations, tend to view the charges as amplified by post-Chola sectarian rivalries rather than reflective of his , which sustained inter-sect harmony through institutional support evidenced in diverse temple grants. Some historians propose the Ramanuja persecution narrative may conflate Kulothunga II with his namesake predecessor, Kulothunga I, based on chronological discrepancies in hagiographic timelines.

References

  1. https://historyunravelled.com/warriors/kulothunga-chola-ii--a-peaceful-ruler
  2. https://anaymalpani.wordpress.com/2018/06/03/kulothunga-chola-ii/
  3. https://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/2022/Jun/02/chidambaram-the-town-temple-and-more-2461126.html
  4. https://www.oneindiaonline.com/kulothunga-chola-II.php
  5. https://tamilnation.org/heritage/chola/
  6. https://www.wisdomlib.org/south-asia/book/later-chola-temples/d/doc212027.html
  7. https://ijirt.org/publishedpaper/IJIRT165426_PAPER.pdf
  8. https://swarajyamag.com/society/how-the-taxation-system-worked-under-the-cholas
  9. https://www.wisdomlib.org/history/essay/temples-of-munnur-historical-study/d/doc1149639.html
  10. https://www.academia.edu/45015350/Tamil_People_as_Traders_and_Voyagers
  11. https://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/42984.pdf
  12. https://ia801505.us.archive.org/4/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.533515/2015.533515.south-indian_text.pdf
  13. https://www.rarebooksocietyofindia.org/book_archive/196174216674_10155075269161675.pdf
  14. https://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/34756.pdf
  15. https://telibrary.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/South-indian-studies.-Nagasamy.pdf
  16. https://www.indica.today/research/conference/in-search-of-the-chola-temple-and-its-composite-reality-a-study-of-the-chidambaram-nataraja-temple/
  17. https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/like-the-rain-that-drenched-everything/article8590125.ece
  18. https://www.facebook.com/100064871790128/posts/kulothunga-iikulothunga-ii-died-1150-ce-was-a-chola-emperor-from-1133-ce-to-1150/1082988703873513/
  19. https://acharya.org/ar/vvr/LOSR-THB-VVR.pdf
  20. https://hinduism.stackexchange.com/questions/11879/is-there-any-historical-evidence-for-persecution-of-vaishnavaites-by-kulothunga
  21. https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/13645/1/fulltext.pdf
  22. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/a-longstanding-tryst-with-controversy/article8007694.ece
  23. https://ravisamudrala.quora.com/Is-it-true-that-Kulothunga-Chola-was-against-Vaishnavism
  24. https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/kulottunga
  25. https://www.poemine.com/Ottakoothar/biography/
  26. https://www.indianetzone.com/ottakoothar
  27. https://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_22/part_1/kulottunga_2.html
  28. https://vajiramandravi.com/upsc-exam/imperial-cholas-art-architecture-and-literature/
  29. https://mallarpallar.wordpress.com/2019/10/25/kulothunga-chola-ii-grandson-of-kulothunga-chola-i/
  30. https://historyunravelled.com/warriors/rajaraja-chola-ii--successor-of-kulothunga-chola-ii
  31. https://www.indiancontents.com/2017/09/kulothunga-chola-ii-grandson-of.html
  32. https://solarspell-dls.sfis.asu.edu/mea/wikipedia/wp/c/Chola_dynasty.htm
  33. https://oldror.lbp.world/UploadedData/10015.pdf
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.