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Chola Empire
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The Chola Empire (Tamil: [t͡ʃoːɻɐɾ, soːɻɐɾ]), which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas,[2] was a medieval thalassocratic empire based in southern India that was ruled by the Chola dynasty, and comprised overseas dominions, protectorates and spheres of influence in southeast Asia.
Key Information
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The power and the prestige the Cholas had among political powers in South, Southeast, and East Asia at its peak is evident in their expeditions to the Ganges, naval raids on cities of the Srivijaya Empire on the island of Sumatra, and their repeated embassies to China.[3] The Chola fleet represented the peak of ancient Indian maritime capacity. Around 1070, the Cholas began to lose almost all of their overseas territories but the later Cholas (1070–1279) continued to rule portions of southern India. The Chola empire went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty, which ultimately caused the Chola's downfall.[4]
The Cholas established a centralized form of government and a disciplined bureaucracy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal for building temples resulted in some of the greatest works of Tamil literature and architecture.[5] The Chola kings were avid builders, and regarded temples in their kingdoms as both places of worship and of economic activity.[6][7] A prime example of Chola architecture is Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which the Rajaraja commissioned in 1010. They were also well known for their patronage of art. The development of the sculpting technique used in Chola bronzes of Hindu deities that were built using a lost wax process, was pioneered in their time. The Chola tradition of art spread, and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.[8][9]
History
[edit]Founding
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Vijayalaya, a descendant of the Early Cholas, reestablished resp. founded the Chola empire in 848 CE.[10] Vijayalaya took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Pandya and Pallava empires in c. 850, captured Thanjavur from Muttarayar, and established the imperial line of the medieval Chola dynasty.[11][12] Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial Chola empire.[13]
Under Aditya I, the Cholas along with the Pallavas defeated the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in 885, occupied large parts of Kannada country, and had marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty. Later, Aditya I defeated the Pallavas and occupied the Tondaimandalam. In 925, Aditya's son Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka, which was then-known as Ilangai. Parantaka I also defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty under Krishna II in the Battle of Vallala.[14] Later, Parantaka I was defeated by Rashtrakutas under Krishna III and the Cholas' heir apparent Rajaditya Chola was killed in the Battle of Takkolam, in which the Cholas lost Tondaimandalam region to Rashtrakutas.[15]
The Cholas recovered their power during the reign of Parantaka II. The Chola army under the command of crown prince Aditha Karikalan defeated the Pandyas and expanded the kingdom to Tondaimandalam. Aditha Karikalan was assassinated in a political plot. After Parantaka II, Uttama Chola became the Chola emperor and was followed by Raja Raja Chola I, the greatest Chola monarch.[16]
Imperial era
[edit]
Under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I, the Chola Empire reach its Imperial state.[17] At its peak, the empire stretched from the northern parts of Sri Lanka northwards to the Godavari–Krishna river basin, up to the Konkan coast in Bhatkal, the entire Malabar Coast (the Chea country) in addition to Lakshadweep and the Maldives islands. Rajaraja Chola I was an energetic ruler who applied himself to the task of governance with the same zeal he had shown in waging wars. He integrated his empire into a tight, administrative grid under royal control and strengthened local self-government. In 1000, Rajaraja conducted a land survey to effectively marshall his empire's resources.[18] He built Brihadeeswarar Temple in 1010.[19]
Rajendra conquered Odisha and his armies continued north and defeated the forces of the Pala dynasty of Bengal, and reached the Ganges river in northern India.[20] Rajendra built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India.[21] Rajendra I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia, which led to the decline of the empire there.[22] This expedition left such an impression on the Malay people of the medieval period his name is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu.[23][24][25] Rajendra also completed the conquest of the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and took the Sinhala king Mahinda V a prisoner; he also conquered Rattapadi—territories of the Rashtrakutas, Chalukya country, Talakkad, and Kolar, where Kolaramma temple still has his portrait statue—in Kannada country.[26][full citation needed] Rajendra's territories included the Ganges–Hooghly–Damodar basin,[27] as well as Rajarata of Sri Lanka and the Maldives.[11] The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty.[28] Diplomatic missions were sent to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077.[11]
Chola–Chalukya wars
[edit]From the period of Rajaraja, the Cholas engaged in a series of conflicts with the Western Chalukyas. The Old Chalukya dynasty had split into two sibling dynasties, the Western and Eastern Chalukyas. Rajaraja's daughter Kundavai was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Vimaladitya, who ruled from Vengi. The Western Chalukyas felt the Vengi kingdom was in their natural sphere of influence. Cholas inflicted several defeats on the Western Chalukyas. The frontier mostly remained at the Tungabhadra River for both kingdoms and resulted in the death of king Rajadhiraja.[29]
Rajendra's reign was followed by those of three of his sons in succession; Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra II, and Virarajendra. In his eagerness to restore Chola hegemony over Vengi to its former absolute state, Rajadhiraja I (1042–1052) led an expedition into Vengi country in 1044–1045. He fought a battle at Dhannada and compelled the Western Chalukyan army and Vijayaditya VII to retreat in disorder. Rajendra then entered the Western Chalukyan dominions and set fire to the Kollipaka fort on the frontier between the Kalyani and Vengi territories.[30]
This brought relief for Rajaraja Narendra, who was now firmly in control at Vengi, with Rajadhiraja I proceeding to the Chalukyan capital, displacing the Chalukyan king Someshvara I, performing his coronation at Manyakheta, and collecting tribute from the defeated king, who had fled the battlefield. While the Chalukyans kept creating trouble through Vijayaditya VII, Vengi remained firmly under the control of the Cholas. Someshvara I again launched an attack on Vengi and then the Cholas in 1054.[31]
After Rajadhiraja died, Rajendra II crowned himself on the battlefield. He galvanized the Chola army, defeating the Chalukyas under Someshvara I. The Chalukya king again fled the battlefield, leaving behind his queen and riches in the possession of the victorious Chola army. The Cholas consolidated their hold on Vengi and Kalinga. Although there were occasional skirmishes with the Chalukyas, they were repeatedly defeated by both the Cholas and the Vengi princes, who openly professed loyalty to the Chola empire. Following the death of Rajaraja Narendra in 1061, another opportunity for the Kalyani court to strengthen its hold on Vengi arose. Vijayaditya VII seized Vengi and with the consent of the Kalyani court, established himself permanently in the kingdom. Meanwhile, prince Rajendra Chalukya, son of Rajaraja Narendra through the Chola princess Ammangai, was brought up in the Chola harem. Rajendra Chalukya married Madhurantakidevi, the daughter of RajendraII. To restore him on the Vengi throne, RajendraII sent his son Rajamahendra and brother ViraRajendra against the Western Chalukyas and Vijayaditya VII. Chola forces marched against Gangavadi and repelled the Chalukyas. Virarajendra then marched against Vengi and probably killed Saktivarman II, son of Vijayaditya VII.[32]
In the midst of this, in 1063, Rajendra II died; because his son Rajamahendra had predeceased him, Virarajendra returned to Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was crowned the Chola king (1063–1070). Virarajendra split the Western Chalukya kingdom by persuading Chalukya prince Vikramaditya IV to become his son-in-law and to seize the throne of Kalyani for himself. When Virarajendra died in 1070, he was succeeded by his son Adhirajendra, who was assassinated a few months later, leaving the Chola dynasty was without a lineal successor in the Vijayalaya Chola line.[33][34][35]
Later Cholas
[edit]
Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya,[36] and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra.[37] In 1070, Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga Devi and Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne, beginning the Later Chola dynasty.[38]
The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga I, his son Vikrama Chola, and other successors Rajaraja II, Rajadhiraja II, and Kulothunga III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha. The rule of the Later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja III to the last emperor Rajendra III, was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850 and 1215. Around 1118, the Cholas lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore) districts to the Hoysala Empire. Immediately after the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas recovered the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III; the Cholas also recovered Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Chola empire, though not as strong as between 850 and 1150, was still largely territorially intact under Rajaraja II (1146–1175) a fact attested to by the construction of the third grand, chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam. Up to 1215, during the rule of Kulothunga Chola III, Chola administration and territorial integrity was stable and very prosperous, but during his rule, Chola power started declining following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–1216.[39] Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control of the island of Sri Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.[40]
The decline of the Cholas was also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India. A lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war, in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war, and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa and Pallavarayanpettai inscriptions.[41][42]
For three generations, the Eastern Chalukyan princes had married into the imperial Chola family and felt they belonged to it as much as to the Eastern Chalukya dynasty. The Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya of Vengi had "spent his childhood days in Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was a familiar favourite to the princes and the people of the Chola country" according to Kalingathuparani, an epic written in praise of him. Following the death of the death of Adhirajendra, Rajendra Chalukya established himself on the Chola throne as Kulottunga I (1070–1122), beginning the Later Chola or Chalukya-Chola period.[43]
Kulothunga I reconciled himself with his uncle Vijayaditya VII and allowed him to rule Vengi for the rest of his life. The Eastern Chalukya line came to an end with Vijayaditya's death in 1075 and Vengi became a province of the Chola Empire.[44] Kulottunga Chola I administered the province through his sons, whom he sent there as viceroys. There was a prolonged fight between Kulottunga Chola I and Vikramaditya VI.[45] Kulothunga's long reign was characterized by unparalleled success and prosperity; he avoided unnecessary wars and earned the admiration of his subjects. Kulottunga's successes resulted in the well-being of the empire for the next 100 years but Kulothunga lost the territories in the island of Lanka and began to lose control of the Pandya territories.[46]
Diminished empire
[edit]| History of South Asia |
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Under Rajaraja Chola III and his successor Rajendra Chola III, the Later Cholas were quite weak and experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I held Rajaraja Chola III as a hostage for some time.[47] At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in Kannada country but they also faced constant trouble from the Seunas and the Kalachuris, who were occupying the Chalukya capital. The Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly relations with the Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala Veera Ballala II, who had subsequent marital relations with the Chola monarch. This continued during the time of Rajaraja Chola III, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola III[39][48]
The Hoysalas played a divisive role in the politics of Tamil country during this period. They exploited the lack of unity among the Tamil kingdoms and alternately supported one Tamil kingdom against the other, thereby preventing the Cholas and Pandyas from rising to their full potential. During the reign of Rajaraja III, the Hoysalas sided with the Cholas, and defeated the Kadava chieftain Kopperunjinga and the Pandyas, and established a presence in Tamil country. Rajendra Chola III, who succeeded Rajaraja III, was a more competent ruler who led successful expeditions to the north, as attested to by his epigraphs found as far as Cuddappah.[49] He also defeated two Pandya princes, one of whom was Maravarman Sundara Pandya II, and briefly made the Pandyas submit to Chola control. The Hoysalas, under Vira Someswara, were quick to intervene and sided with the Pandyas, and repulsed the Cholas to counter the latter's revival.[50]
In South India, the Pandyas had become a great power that banished the Hoysalas from Malanadu and Kannada country; the Hoysalas were allies of the Cholas on Tamil country. The demise of the Cholas was caused by the Pandyas in 1279. The Pandyas steadily gained control of Tamil country and territories in Sri Lanka, southern Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II and his able successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan, before inflicting several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola III, and the Hoysalas under Someshwara, his son Ramanatha.[39] From 1215, the Pandyans gradually became a major force in Tamil country and consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam-southern Chera country and the Kanyakumari belt, and had been steadily increasing their territories in the Kaveri belt between Dindigul, Tiruchy, Karur, and Satyamangalam and in the Kaveri Delta, Thanjavur, Mayiladuthurai, Chidambaram, Vriddhachalam, and Kanchi. The Pandyans marched to Arcot; Tirumalai, Nellore, Visayawadai, Vengi, and Kalingam by 1250.[51]
The Pandyas steadily routed the Hoysalas and the Cholas,[52] and dispossessed the Hoysalas, defeating them under Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan at Kannanur Kuppam.[53] At the close of Rajendra's reign, the Pandyan empire was at the height of its prosperity and had replaced the Chola empire in the view of foreign observers.[54] The last-recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279; there is no evidence he was immediately followed by another Chola prince.[55][56] In around 1279, Kulasekhara Pandiyan routed the Hoysalas from Kannanur Kuppam and in the same war, the last Chola emperor Rajendra III was routed and the Chola empire ceased to exist. The Chola empire was completely overshadowed by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity by the end of the 13th century until period of the Vijayanagara Empire.[57][56]
In the early 16th century, Virasekhara Chola, king of Tanjore, rose out of obscurity and plundered the dominions of the Pandya prince in the south. The Pandya, who was under the protection of the Vijayanagara, appealed to the emperor and the Raya accordingly directed his agent (Karyakartta) Nagama Nayaka, who was stationed in the south, to put down the Chola. Nagama Nayaka then defeated the Chola but the once-loyal officer of Krishnadeva Raya defied the emperor and decided to keep Madurai for himself. Krishnadeva Raya is said to have dispatched Nagama's son Viswanatha, who defeated his father and restored Madurai to Vijayanagara rule.[58] The fate of Virasekhara Chola, the last of the line of Cholas, is not known. It is speculated he either fell in battle or was executed along with his heirs during his encounter with Vijayanagara.[59][60]
Administration
[edit]Government
[edit]
The Government of the Chola empire was monarchical, similar to the Sangam age. The empire consisted of various kingdoms, vassals, chiefdoms and areas of influence owning alliance to the Emperor.[61] Several of these vassalages had some degree of autonomy.[62] Several historians have described the governmental system of the Cholas as a form of Feudalism. However, others including Burton Stein reject this due to differences between the governance of the Cholas and that of traditional feudalism in contemporary Europe.[63]
The Chola empire was divided into several provinces called mandalams which were further divided into valanadus, which were subdivided into units called kottams or kutrams.[64] At local government level, every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a kurram, nadu or kottam, depending on the area.[65][66][67] A number of kurrams constituted a valanadu.[68] These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period.[69]
Similar to other medieval Indian societies, the caste system played a role in Chola governance.[63] According to Kathleen Gough, the Vellalars, the dominant aristocratic caste, provided taxes and tribute to the monarchy and military[70]
Temples in the Chola era acted as both places of worship and centres of economic activity, benefiting the community.[71] Some of the output of villages was given to temples, which reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements.[72]
Before the reign of Rajaraja I, huge parts of Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and local princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. Thereafter, until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133, when Chola power was at its peak, these hereditary lords and local princes almost vanished from Chola records, and were either replaced with or became dependent officials, through whom the administration was improved and the Emperors were able to exercise closer control over the parts of the empire.[73] The administrative structure expanded, particularly during and after the reign of Rajaraja. The government at this time had a multi-tiered, large, land-revenue department that was largely concerned with maintaining accounts. Corporate bodies such as the Ur, Nadu, Sabha, Nagaram, and sometimes local chieftains, undertook The assessment and collection of revenue, and passed the revenue to the centre. Rajaraja's reign initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment, and the empire was reorganised into units known as valanadus.[74]
The executive officer first communicated the order of the King to the local authorities. Afterwards, the records of the transaction was drawn up and attested by witnesses, who were either local magnates or government officers.[75]
In the Chola empire, Justice was mostly a local matter; minor disputes were settled at village level.[67] Minor crimes were punished with fines or a direction for the offender to donate to a charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. The king heard and decided crimes of the state, such as treason; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or the confiscation of property.[76]
Military
[edit]
The Chola military had four elements; the cavalry, the elephant corps, several divisions of infantry, and a navy.[77] The Emperor was the supreme commander. There were regiments of bowmen and swordsmen, the latter of which were the most-permanent and most-dependable troops. The Chola army was spread all over the country and was stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams. Elephants played a major role in the army; the empire had numerous war elephants that carried houses or huge howdahs on their backs. These howdahs were full of soldiers who shot arrows at long range and fought with spears at close quarters.[78] The Chola army was mostly composed of Kaikolars—men with strong arms who were royal troops receiving regular payments from the treasury.[a][79]
Chola rulers built several palaces and fortifications to protect their cities. The fortifications were mostly made of bricks but other materials like stone, wood, and mud were also used.[80][81] According to the ancient Tamil text Silappadikaram, Tamil kings defended their forts with catapults that threw stones, huge cauldrons of boiling water or molten lead, and hooks, chains, and traps.[82][83][need quotation to verify]
Chola soldiers used weapons such as swords, bows, javelins, spears, and steel shields.[84] Several Chola weapons utilized Wootz steel.[85]
The Chola navy was the zenith of ancient India sea power.[78] It played a vital role in the expansion of the empire, including the conquest of the Sri Lanka islands and naval raids on Srivijaya.[86] The navy grew both in size and status during the medieval Cholas reign. Chola admirals commanded much respect and prestige, and naval commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances. From 900 to 1100, the navy grew from a small entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in Asia, but was gradually reduced in significance when Cholas fought land battles to subjugate the Chalukyas of the Andhra-Kannada area in South India.[87]
Economy
[edit]Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income.[88] Chola rulers issued coins in gold, silver, and copper.[89] The Chola economy was based on three tiers; at the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns nagaram, which acted as redistribution centres for externally produced items bound for consumption in the local economy and as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for international trade. At the top of this economy were elite merchant groups (samayam) who organised and dominated the regions international maritime trade.[90][clarification needed]
The Chola Empire's main export was cotton cloth.[91] Uraiyur, the capital of the early Chola rulers, was a centre for cotton textiles Tamil poets praised.[92][93] Chola rulers encouraged the weaving industry and derived revenue from it.[94] During this period, weavers started to organise themselves into guilds.[95] Weavers had their own residential sector in all towns; the most important weaving communities in early medieval times were the Saliyar and Kaikolar.[94] During the Chola period, silk weaving attained a high degree of skill and Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk.[96][97]
Metalcrafts peaked during the 10th to 11th centuries because Chola rulers like Chembian Maadevi extended their patronage to metal craftsmen.[98] Wootz steel was a major Chola export.[99] Farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society.[100] These were the Vellalar community, who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and were an economically powerful group.[100][101] Agriculture was the principal occupation for many people besides landowners.[102] The Vellalar community was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy, and the upper ranks of the peasantry.[70]
In almost all villages, the distinction between persons paying the land tax (iraikudigal) and those who did not was clearly established. There was a class of hired day-labourers who assisted in agricultural operations on estates of other people and received a daily wage. All cultivable land was held in one of the three broad classes of tenure; peasant proprietorship called vellan-vagai, service tenure, and eleemosynary tenure resulting from charitable gifts.[103] The vellan-vagai were the ordinary ryotwari village of modern times, having direct relations with the government and paying a land-tax liable to periodic revision.[90] The vellan-vagai villages fell into two broad classes; one directly paid a variable annual revenue to the state and the other paid fixed-rate dues to public institutions like temples to which they were assigned.[104] The prosperity of an agricultural country depends to a large extent on the facilities provided for irrigation. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, Chola rulers built large, stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut channels to distribute water over large tracts of land.[105] Rajendra Chola I dug near his capital an artificial lake that was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers.[104]
An internal trade in several articles was carried out by organised mercantile corporations. The metal industries and the jewellers' art had reached a high degree of excellence. Sea salt was made under government supervision and control. Merchants organised into guilds that were described sometimes by the terms nanadesis; these were powerful, autonomous corporations of merchants that visited other countries in the course of trade. These corporations had mercenary armies for the protection of their merchandise. There were also local organisations of merchants called "nagaram" in big centres of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram.[106][104]
Hospitals
[edit]_near_Kanchipuram_-_top_view.jpeg)
Hospitals were maintained by the Chola kings, whose government gave lands for that purpose. The Tirumukkudal inscription shows a hospital was named after Virarajendra. Many diseases were cured by the doctors of the hospital, which was under the control of a chief physician, who was paid annually eighty kalams of paddy, eight kasus, and a grant of land. Apart from the doctors, other remunerated staff included a nurse, a barber who performed minor operations, and a waterman.[107]
The Chola queen Kundavai established a hospital at Tanjavur and gave land for its perpetual maintenance.[108]
Society
[edit]During the Chola period several guilds, communities, and castes emerged. The guild was one of the most significant institutions of south India and merchants organised themselves into guilds. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds though other guilds such as Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar were also in existence.[109] Members of the Vellalar caste were sent to northern Sri Lanka by the Chola rulers as settlers.[110] The Ulavar caste were agricultural workers and peasants were known as Kalamar.[100]
The Kaikolar community were weavers and merchants who also maintained armies. During the Chola period, they had predominant trading and military roles.[111] During the reign of the Imperial Chola rulers (10th–13th centuries), there were major changes in the temple administration and land ownership. There was more involvement of non-Brahmin peoples in temple administration. This can be attributed to the shift in financial power. Skilled classes like weavers and merchants had become prosperous. Land ownership was no longer a privilege of the Brahmins (priest caste) and the Vellalar land owners.[112]
There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign.[113] The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and contented life but there are reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities.[114]
The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates the inscribers had a high level of literacy and education. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children,[115] although there is no evidence of systematic education system for the masses.[116] Vocational education was through hereditary training, in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning and received government support.[117]
Under Chola kings, there was generally an emphasis on a fair justice system, and the kings were often described as sengol-valavan, the king who established just rule; and priests warned the king royal justice would ensure a happy future for him, and that injustice would lead to divine punishment.[118][119]
Foreign trade
[edit]The Cholas, who were in possession of parts of the west and east coasts of peninsular India,[120] engaged in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence to China and Southeast Asia.[121] Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity.[122] South Indian guilds played a major role in inter-regional and overseas trade. The best-known guilds were the Manigramam and Ayyavole, who followed the conquering Chola armies.[123] The encouragement of the Chola court furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations and guilds into Southeast Asia and China.[124][125] The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya Empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the Chola Empire's main trading partners.[126]
The Chola dynasty played a significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. The empire's market structure and economic policies were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song dynasty. A Chola record gives their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with villages and decent dwellings in the city, by affording them daily audience, presents and allowing them profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies."[127]
Song dynasty reports record an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in 1077,[128][129] and that the king of the Chulian at the time, Kulothunga I, was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the Chola visitors, who returned with copper coins in exchange for articles of tribute, including glass and spices.[130] The motive behind Rajendra's expedition to Srivijaya was probably the protection of the merchants' interests.[131]
Canals and water tanks
[edit]
There was tremendous agrarian expansion during the rule of the imperial Chola dynasty (c. 900–1270) in present-day Tamil Nadu, particularly in the Kaveri Basin. Canals of the Kaveri River were constructed in this period; these include the Uyyakondan canal, Rajendran vaykkal, and Sembian Mahadegvi vaykkal. There was an efficient, well-developed system of water management from the village level upwards. There was an increase in royal patronage, and the number of devadana and bramadeya lands, which increased the role of the temples and village assemblies in farming. Tank committees (eri-variyam) and garden committees (totta-variam) were as active as the temples with their vast resources in land, men and money. The water tanks that came up during the Chola period include one Rajendra Chola built at Solagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Solapuram and was described as the liquid pillar of victory. Solagagam was about 16 miles (26 km) long, and was provided with sluices and canals for irrigating land in the neighbouring areas. Another very large lake of this period, which remains an important source of irrigation, is Viranameri near Kattumannarkoil in South Arcot district that Parantaka Chola founded. Other lakes of this period include Madurantakam, Sundra-cholapereri, and Kundavai-Pereri, which was named after a Chola queen).[132]
Art and architecture
[edit]Architecture
[edit]
The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design.[133] They built a number of Shiva temples along the banks of the Kaveri river. The template for these and future temples was formulated by Aditya I and Parantaka.[134][135][136] The Chola temple architecture has been appreciated for its magnificence and delicate workmanship, ostensibly following the rich traditions of the Pallava dynasty.[137] Architectural historian James Fergusson says "the Chola artists conceived like giants and finished like jewelers".[137] A new development in Chola art that characterised the Dravidian architecture in later times was the addition of a huge gateway called gopuram to the enclosure of the temple, which had been developed under the Pandya dynasty.[137] The Chola school of art spread to Southeast Asia, and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.[138][139]
Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I.[140] The temples at Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram display the maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved. The Shiva temple of Thanjavur, which was completed around 1009, idisplays the material achievements of Rajaraja's reign, being the largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time. The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram, which was designed by Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its predecessor. It was completed around 1030 in the same style. The greater elaboration in its appearance attests to the more affluent state of the Chola empire under Rajendra.[133][141][page needed] The Brihadisvara Temple, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO, and are referred to as the Great Living Chola Temples.[142]
The Chola period is also noted for its sculptures and bronzes.[143][144][145] Specimens in museums around the world and in temples of South India include figures of Shiva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Shaivite saints.[133] These works generally conform to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition but the sculptors of the 11th and the 12th centuries worked with great freedom to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.[146][b]
Literature
[edit]
Literature flourished in the Chola Empire. The poet Kambar was active during the reign of Kulothunga III. Kambar's epic poem Ramavataram (also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is a classic of Tamil literature; though the author states he followed Valmiki's Ramayana, it is generally accepted his work is not a simple translation or adaptation of the Sanskrit epic.[148][page needed] Kambar's work describes the colour and landscape of his own time; his description of Kosala is an idealised account of the features of Chola country.[149][150][page needed][151]
Jayamkondar's Kalingattuparani is an example of narrative poetry that draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions. This poem describes events during Kulothunga's war in Kalinga, and depicts the pomp and circumstance of war, and the gruesome details of the field.[151][152] The Tamil poet Ottakuttan was a contemporary of Kulottunga I and served at the courts of three of Kulothunga's successors.[153][154] Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Cholan Ula, a poem extolling the virtues of the Chola king.[155]
Nannul is a Chola-era work on Tamil grammar. It discusses all five branches of grammar and, according to Berthold Spuler, is still relevant and is one of the most-distinguished normative grammars of literary Tamil.[156]
The Telugu Choda period was significant for the development of Telugu literature under the patronage of the rulers. In this era, great Telugu poets Tikkana, Ketana, Marana and Somana were active. Tikkana Somayaji wrote Nirvachanottara Ramayanamu and Andhra Mahabharatamu. Abhinava Dandi Ketana wrote Dasakumaracharitramu, Vijnaneswaramu, and Andhra Bhashabhushanamu. Marana wrote Markandeya Purana in Telugu. Somana wrote Basava Purana. Tikkana is one of the kavitrayam who translated Mahabharata into Telugu.[157]
Of the period's devotional literature, the arrangement of the Shaivite canon into eleven books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of the 10th century.[158][159] Relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the Later Chola period, possibly because of the rulers' apparent animosity towards them.[160]
Religion
[edit]
In general, Cholas were followers of Hinduism. While the Cholas built their largest and most-important temple dedicated to Shiva, it is uncertain whether they were followers of Shaivism only or that they were not favourably disposed to other faiths. The second Chola king Aditya I (871–903) built temples for Shiva and Vishnu. Inscriptions of 890 refer to his contributions to the construction Ranganatha Temple at Srirangapatnam in the Western Gangas, who were both his feudatories and had connections by marriage with him. He also said the great temples of Shiva and Ranganatha temple were to be the Kuladhanam of the Chola emperors.[161]
Parantaka II was a devotee of the reclining Vishnu (Vadivu Azhagiya Nambi) at Anbil the outskirts of Tiruchy, to whom he gave numerous gifts and embellishments. He prayed before Vishnu before his embarking on a war to regain territories in and around Kanchi and Arcot from the waning Rashtrakutas, and leading expeditions against Madurai and Ilam (Sri Lanka).[162] Parantaka I and Parantaka Chola II endowed and built temples for Shiva and Vishnu.[163] Rajaraja Chola I patronised Buddhists and provided for the construction of the Chudamani Vihara, a Buddhist monastery in Nagapattinam, at the request of Sri Chulamanivarman, the Srivijaya Sailendra king.[164][165]
During the period of the Later Cholas, there were supposed instances of intolerance towards Vaishnavites[166] especially towards their acharya Ramanuja.[167] A Chola sovereign called Krimikanta Chola is said to have persecuted Ramanuja. Some scholars identify Kulothunga Chola II with Krimikanta Chola or worm-necked Chola, who is so-called because he is said to have suffered from cancer of the throat or neck. The latter finds mention in the vaishnava Guruparampara and is said to have been a strong opponent of the Vaishnavas. The 17th-century work Parpannamritam refers to a Chola king called Krimikanta who is said to have removed the Govindaraja idol from the Chidambaram Nataraja temple.[168] According to temple records of the Srirangam temple, however, Kulottunga Chola II was the son of Krimikanta Chola. The former, unlike his father, is said to have been a repentant son who supported Vaishnavism.[169][170]
Ramanuja is said to have made Kulottunga II a disciple of his nephew Dasarathi. The king then granted the management of Ranganathaswamy temple to Dasarathi and his descendants as per the wish of Ramanuja.[171][172] Historian Nilakanta Sastri identifies Krimikanta Chola with Athirajendra Chola or Virarajendra Chola, with whom the main Vijayalaya Chola line ended.[173][174] An inscription from 1160 states the custodians of Shiva temples who had social intercourse with Vaishnavites would forfeit their property. This is a direction to the Shaivite community by its religious heads rather than a diktat by a Chola emperor. While Chola kings built their largest temples for Shiva, and emperors like Rajaraja Chola I held titles like Sivapadasekharan, in none of their inscriptions did the Chola emperors proclaim their clan solely followed Shaivism or that Shaivism was the state religion during their rule.[175][176][177]
Family tree
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Emperors
[edit]| Ruler | Reign | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vijayalaya Chola | 848–870 | Founder of the Chola empire and descendant of the Early Cholas. | |
| Aditya I | 870–907 | ||
| Parantaka I | 907–955 | ||
| Gandaraditya | 955–957 | Ruled jointly. | |
| Arinjaya | 956–957 | ||
| Parantaka II | 957–970 | ||
| Uttama | 970–985 | ||
| Rajaraja I the Great | .jpg)
|
June/July 985 – January/February 1014[c] | |
| Rajendra I | 
|
1014–1044 | |
| Rajadhiraja I | 
|
1044 – 28 May 1052 | |
| Rajendra II | 28 May 1052 – 1063 | ||
| Virarajendra | 1063–1070 | ||
| Athirajendra | 1070 | Left no heirs. | |
| Kulothunga I |
|
9 June 1070 – 1122 | Son of Amangai Devi Chola, daughter of Rajendra I, and Rajaraja Narendra, ruler of Eastern Chalukya dynasty. Kolothunga's reign started the period which was known as Chalukya-Chola dynasty or simply Later Cholas. |
| Vikrama | 1122–1135 | ||
| Kulothunga II | 
|
1135–1150 | Grandson of the previous. |
| Rajaraja II | 1150–1173 | ||
| Rajadhiraja II | 1173–1178 | Grandson of king Virarajendra Chola. | |
| Kulothunga III | 
|
1178–1216 | |
| Rajaraja III | July 1216 – 1256 | ||
| Rajendra III | 1256–1279 | Last Chola ruler, defeated by the Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I of the Pandya dynasty. After the war, the remaining Chola royal bloods were reduced to the state of being chieftains by the Pandyan forces. | |
Footnotes
[edit]- ^ Arul mozhideva-terinda-kaikola padai; in this, arulmozhideva is the king's name, terinda means well known, and padai means regime
- ^ By common consent, the finest Chola masterpieces are the bronze images of Siva Nataraja.[147]
- ^ Crowned between 25 June and 12 July 985, and died in the month of Magha (month) in 1014
References
[edit]- ^ Thapar, Romila (2004). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of California Press. p. 366. ISBN 978-0-520-24225-8.
The unobtrusive titles used by the early Chola kings were replaced with high-sounding ones, such as chakravartigal (emperor, the equivalent of the northern chakravartin).
- ^ Kaimal, Padma (May 1992). "Art of the Imperial Cholas. By Vidya Dehejia. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990. xv, 148 pp. 36.00". The Journal of Asian Studies (book review). 51 (2): 414–416. doi:10.2307/2058068. ISSN 1752-0401. JSTOR 2058068. S2CID 163175500.
- ^ K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p. 158
- ^ K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p. 195–196
- ^ Keay 2011, p. 215.
- ^ Vasudevan, pp. 20–22
- ^ Keay 2011, pp. 217–218.
- ^ Promsak Jermsawatdi, Thai Art with Indian Influences, p. 57
- ^ John Stewart Bowman, Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture, p. 335
- ^ Sen (1999), pp. 477–478
- ^ a b c Dehejia (1990), p. xiv
- ^ Kulke & Rothermund (2001), pp. 122–123
- ^ Eraly (2011), p. 67
- ^ Sen (1999), pp. 373
- ^ Cholas I.
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- ^ Kulke & Rothermund (2001), p. 115
- ^ Eraly (2011), p. 68
- ^ "Endowments to the Temple". Archaeological Survey of India.
- ^ Balaji Sadasivan, The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India, p.133
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- ^ Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke, Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium, p.67
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- ^ Finegan, Jack (1989). An archaeological history of religions of Indian Asia. New York: Paragon House. p. 323. ISBN 0-913729-43-4.
- ^ South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. 12
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- ^ Government Oriental Manuscripts Library. Madras Government Oriental Series, Issue 157. Tamil Nadu, India. p. 729.
- ^ Venkataramanayya, N[elaturi (1950). The Eastern Calukyas of Vengi.
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{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1929). The Pandyan kingdom : from the earliest to the sixteenth century. Luzac,London.
- ^ Sastri (2002), p. 194
- ^ Majumdar (1987), p. 410
- ^ Journal of the Sri Venkatesvara Oriental Institute. 5–7. Sri Venkatesvara Oriental Institute: 64.
{{cite journal}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - ^ Sailendra Nath Sen (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 487.
- ^ South India and Her Muhammadan Invaders by S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar pp. 40–41
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- ^ Sastri (2002), p. 196
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- ^ a b Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), p. 130
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- ^ Stein (1998), p. 26
- ^ a b Stein, Burton (January 1985). "Politics, peasants and the deconstruction of feudalism in medieval India". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 12 (2–3): 54–86. doi:10.1080/03066158508438265. ISSN 0306-6150.
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- ^ a b Sastri (2002), p. 185
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- ^ Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle (1623) gave an account of a village schools in South India; this account reflects the system of primary education that existed in Tamil Nadu.
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- ^ Mackenzie, Colin (1972). T. V. Mahalingam (ed.). Mackenzie manuscripts; summaries of the historical manuscripts in the Mackenzie collection. Vol. 1. University of Madras. p. 14.
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Works cited
[edit]- Barua, Pradeep (2005), The State at War in South Asia, University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 978-0-80321-344-9
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- Dehejia, Vidya (1990), The Art of the Imperial Cholas, Columbia University Press
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- Mitter, Partha (2001), Indian art, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-284221-3
- Mukherjee, Rila (2011), Pelagic Passageways: The Northern Bay of Bengal Before Colonialism, Primus Books, ISBN 978-9-38060-720-7
- Mukund, Kanakalatha (1999), The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant: Evolution of Merchant Capitalism in the Coromandel, Orient Blackswan, ISBN 978-8-12501-661-8
- Mukund, Kanakalatha (2012), Merchants of Tamilakam: Pioneers of International Trade, Penguin Books India, ISBN 978-0-67008-521-7
- Nagasamy, R. (1970), Gangaikondacholapuram, State Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu
- Nagasamy, R. (1981), Tamil Coins – A study, Institute of Epigraphy, Tamil Nadu State Dept. of Archaeology
- Paine, Lincoln (2014), The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World, Atlantic Books, ISBN 978-1-78239-357-3
- Prasad, G. Durga (1988), History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D., P. G. Publishers
- Rajasuriar, G. K. (1998), The history of the Tamils and the Sinhalese of Sri Lanka
- Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2007), Historical Dictionary of the Tamils, Scarecrow Press, ISBN 978-0-81086-445-0
- Rothermund, Dietmar (1993), An Economic History of India: From Pre-colonial Times to 1991 (Reprinted ed.), Routledge, ISBN 978-0-41508-871-8
- Sadarangani, Neeti M. (2004), Bhakti Poetry in Medieval India: Its Inception, Cultural Encounter and Impact, Sarup & Sons, ISBN 978-8-17625-436-6
- Sakhuja, Vijay; Sakhuja, Sangeeta (2009), "Rajendra Chola I's Naval Expedition to South-East Asia: A Nautical Perspective", in Kulke, Hermann; Kesavapany, K.; Sakhuja, Vijay (eds.), Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, ISBN 978-9-81230-937-2
- Sastri, K. A. N. (1984) [1935], The CōĻas, University of Madras
- Sastri, K. A. N. (2002) [1955], A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar, Oxford University Press
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- Singh, Upinder (2008), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education India, ISBN 978-8-13171-120-0
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- Spuler, Bertold (1975), Handbook of Oriental Studies, Part 2, BRILL, ISBN 978-9-00404-190-5
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- Subbarayalu, Y. (2009), "A Note on the Navy of the Chola State", in Kulke, Hermann; Kesavapany, K.; Sakhuja, Vijay (eds.), Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, ISBN 978-9-81230-937-2
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Further reading
[edit]- Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
- Durga Prasad, History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D., P. G. PUBLISHERS
- Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1935). The Cōlas, University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
Chola Empire
View on GrokipediaHistory
Origins and Early Cholas
The earliest historical references to the Cholas appear in the edicts of Mauryan emperor Ashoka (r. 268–232 BCE), specifically Major Rock Edict II, which lists the Cholas (rendered as "Choda") among southern independent kingdoms—alongside the Pandyas, Satiyaputras, and Keralaputras—that received Buddhist dhamma propagation efforts, including animal welfare measures and medical facilities for humans and livestock.[11] This indicates the Cholas as a distinct polity in the Kaveri river region by the mid-3rd century BCE, predating direct epigraphic evidence from their own rulers. Traditional genealogies in later Tamil works, such as the 11th-century Rajarajesvara temple inscriptions, claim solar dynasty origins and legendary kings like Muchukunda, but these lack corroboration from primary archaeological or contemporary textual sources and serve primarily to legitimize medieval Chola rule.[12] The primary sources for early Chola history are the Sangam anthologies, a corpus of Tamil poems dated roughly 300 BCE to 300 CE, which portray the kingdom as one of the "three crowned" powers of ancient Tamilakam, controlling the fertile Kaveri delta with capitals at Uraiyur (inland) and Puhar (Kaveripumpattinam, a coastal port). These texts describe a monarchical system reliant on agriculture, cattle rearing, and maritime trade, including with Roman merchants evidenced by Yavana (Greek/Roman) settlements at Puhar and Arikamedu. Archaeological findings, such as rouletted ware pottery and Roman amphorae from 1st-century BCE–2nd-century CE strata at these sites, align with Sangam depictions of economic vibrancy but do not conclusively tie artifacts to named Chola rulers, highlighting interpretive challenges in equating literary kingdoms with material culture.[12][13] Prominent among early rulers was Karikala Chola (c. 1st–2nd century CE), son of Ilamcetcenni, celebrated in poems like Pattinappaalai for military victories over Chera and Pandya forces at the Battle of Venni and for commissioning the Kallanai (Grand Anicut), a stone barrage across the Kaveri near Tiruchirappalli to divert floodwaters for irrigation and avert delta inundation. While Sangam verses attribute these feats to him, no contemporary inscriptions confirm the dam's construction date or exact engineering—later medieval Chola records, such as the 11th-century Thiruvalangadu plates, retroactively praise Karikala to glorify ancestry, suggesting possible amplification of achievements in oral traditions compiled centuries later. Subsequent kings, including Nedunkilli, Killivalavan, and Kopperuncholan (c. 2nd–3rd centuries CE), faced internal feuds and external pressures, as referenced in fragmentary dynastic poems, leading to territorial contraction.[12] By the 4th century CE, the early Cholas receded amid the Kalabhra interregnum (c. 3rd–6th centuries CE), a period of upheaval where "Kalabhras" (possibly hill tribes or heterodox rulers) displaced Tamil monarchies, subordinating Chola lands to Pallava and Pandya overlords; Tamil Brahminical texts like the Periyapuranam decry this era as one of Jain/Buddhist dominance and ritual laxity, though archaeological continuity in Kaveri settlements suggests no total societal collapse. The dynasty's remnants persisted as minor chieftains in Andhra and marginal Tamil polities until the 9th-century revival under Vijayalaya, marking a break from the Sangam-era phase.[12]Revival under Vijayalaya and Early Imperial Phase
Vijayalaya Chola, ruling approximately from 848 to 871 CE, initiated the revival of the Chola dynasty by seizing control of Thanjavur from the Muttaraiyar chieftains around 850 CE, establishing it as the dynasty's primary stronghold and capital.[14][8] Likely beginning as a feudatory under Pallava influence, Vijayalaya capitalized on regional instability following Pallava-Pandya conflicts to assert independence, claiming descent from the ancient Early Cholas who had faded after the third century CE.[15] His consolidation of the Kaveri River delta provided a fertile agricultural base, enabling economic stability through rice cultivation and irrigation systems inherited from prior rulers, while he constructed the Vijayalaya Choleswaram temple at Thanjavur, signaling early patronage of Shaivism that became a hallmark of Chola legitimacy.[16] Aditya I, Vijayalaya's son, who reigned from 871 to 907 CE, propelled the dynasty toward imperial status through aggressive military campaigns that dismantled Pallava power.[17] He defeated the Pallava king Aparajita in the late ninth century, annexing the Tondaimandalam region (encompassing modern northern Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh), thereby extending Chola territory northward beyond the Kaveri.[18] Aditya also subdued the Western Ganga kingdom and raided the Kongu Nadu (Coimbatore region), incorporating these areas into Chola administration and fostering trade routes.[17] Inscriptions from his era, such as those on temple walls, record endowments to Shaiva shrines along the Kaveri River, including contributions to over 90 temples, which reinforced religious infrastructure and royal authority amid expansion.[19] Parantaka I, ascending in 907 CE and ruling until 955 CE, further solidified Chola dominance by conquering the Pandya kingdom, defeating king Varaguna II and capturing Madurai, adopting the title Maduraikonda (Conqueror of Madurai).[20] This victory integrated southern Tamil territories, including the fertile Vaigai delta, expanding the realm to encompass most of modern Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala, with evidence from copper-plate grants detailing land revenues and administrative divisions.[21] However, northern ambitions were curtailed by a decisive defeat to the Rashtrakuta king Krishna II at the Battle of Takkolam in 949 CE, which temporarily limited incursions into Deccan territories but preserved core southern gains.[18] Parantaka promoted temple construction, such as expansions at Tiruvalangadu, and maintained a standing army evidenced by epigraphic references to elephant corps and cavalry, laying administrative foundations like sabhas (village assemblies) for local governance.[22] These efforts marked the transition from regional revival to a proto-imperial structure, reliant on inscriptional records rather than literary chronicles for verification.[23]Expansion under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I
Rajaraja I, reigning from 985 to 1014 CE, transformed the Chola kingdom into an imperial power through systematic military conquests supported by a robust administrative and naval apparatus. Early in his rule, he subdued the Pandya rulers, annexing Madurai and their southern territories by approximately 992 CE, as recorded in temple inscriptions detailing tributes and submissions.[24] Concurrently, campaigns against the Chera kingdom incorporated Kerala into Chola domains around 998–1005 CE, evidenced by grants to Brahmins from conquered regions inscribed at Thanjavur.[24] Wars with the Western Chalukyas from 996 to 1006 CE secured control over the Tungabhadra doab and Vengi, with victories at battles like Talikota affirmed by Chalukya and Chola epigraphs noting prisoner exchanges and alliances with Eastern Chalukyas.[25] A pivotal expansion occurred in 993 CE when Rajaraja I launched a naval assault on northern Sri Lanka, capturing Anuradhapura—the ancient Sinhalese capital—and renaming the region Ilamandalam in Chola records.[26][27] This conquest, chronicled in the Thiruvalangadu plates and local Tamil inscriptions at sites like Tirukketisvaram, dismantled the Anuradhapura Kingdom under Mahinda V, establishing permanent Chola garrisons and revenue extraction from pearl fisheries in the Gulf of Mannar.[28] These efforts, bolstered by an emerging Chola navy, positioned the empire to dominate Palk Strait trade routes.
Rajendra I, succeeding his father in 1014 CE and ruling until 1044 CE, amplified these gains with audacious land and sea campaigns that briefly projected Chola influence across the Bay of Bengal. He consolidated Sri Lankan holdings by subjugating the southern polities, relocating the island's administrative hub to Polonnaruwa to centralize control amid persistent Sinhalese resistance.[24] The northern expedition of 1023 CE saw Chola forces traverse the Deccan, defeat Kalinga rulers, and advance into Bengal, where inscriptions at Gangaikonda Cholapuram—his new capital—proclaim reaching the Ganges, subduing Pala king Mahipala I, and ritually bathing in the river, though likely through tributary alliances rather than outright occupation.[29][30] In 1025 CE, Rajendra orchestrated a maritime offensive against the Srivijaya Empire, dispatching fleets that sacked at least fourteen ports including Kadaram (Kedah), Pannai, and the capital Srivijaya, as enumerated in Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram inscriptions listing looted treasures like elephants and jewels.[31][30] This raid disrupted Srivijayan monopoly on spice and silk trades, securing Chola access to Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, though permanent territorial hold remained limited to tribute-based suzerainty. These ventures, verified by cross-references in Chinese Song dynasty annals and Chola epigraphy, underscored the empire's thalassocratic reach, encompassing from the Ganges delta to Maldives outposts by circa 1030 CE.[24]
Interstate Conflicts and Zenith
Rajendra I (r. 1014–1044 CE) extended the conquests initiated by his father Rajaraja I, reaching the empire's territorial zenith around 1030 CE through a series of northern and overseas campaigns that incorporated the whole of peninsular India south of the Tungabhadra River, the island of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and established Chola hegemony over maritime trade routes extending to Southeast Asia.[31] His northern expedition, launched circa 1023 CE, subdued the Western Chalukyas of Vengi, the Kalinga kingdom, and other Gangetic polities, culminating in the ritual immersion of Ganges water at his new capital, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, which symbolized Chola dominance over eastern India up to the river's delta.[32] This campaign involved an army estimated at tens of thousands, leveraging Chola infantry, cavalry, and elephant corps to defeat coalitions including Telugu Choda and Eastern Chalukya forces, thereby securing tribute and vassalage from regional kings.[32] In 1025 CE, Rajendra dispatched a naval fleet of several hundred ships to raid Srivijayan ports across the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and possibly Java, sacking key entrepôts like Kadaram (Kedah) and capturing spoils including Buddhist monks and royal insignia; this intervention, motivated by disruptions to Chola trade with China amid Song dynasty policies favoring Srivijaya, temporarily dismantled Srivijayan naval blockades and asserted Chola maritime supremacy without establishing permanent colonies.[31] These victories, chronicled in Chola inscriptions such as the Tiruvalangadu plates, expanded the empire's influence over Indian Ocean commerce in spices, textiles, and horses, with annual tribute from vassals funding monumental architecture and military upkeep.[32] The zenith period was punctuated by persistent interstate rivalries, particularly the protracted Chalukya–Chola wars (992–1120 CE), fought primarily over control of the Vengi region and Deccan trade corridors, where Chola forces repeatedly invaded Chalukya territories in present-day Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, annexing areas up to the Tungabhadra River and installing puppet rulers in Kalyani.[33] A pivotal engagement, the Battle of Koppam in 1054 CE near the Tungabhadra, saw Chola kings Rajadhiraja I and Rajendra II confront Western Chalukya ruler Someshvara I's army; despite Rajadhiraja's death in combat—evidenced by his battlefield-mounted corpse in Chola records—the Cholas prevailed, slaying Chalukya generals and securing Vengi under Chola suzerainty, which preserved imperial cohesion amid succession strains.[33] These conflicts, involving annual raids and fortified frontier defenses, strained resources but reinforced Chola military doctrine of rapid elephant-supported assaults, sustaining the empire's peak influence until internal revolts eroded outer provinces post-1070 CE.[32]Decline and Fragmentation
Following the reign of Kulottunga I (r. 1070–1122 CE), who represented the last phase of effective imperial consolidation, the Chola Empire experienced a progressive weakening of central authority due to incompetent successors and recurrent internal strife. Vikrama Chola (r. 1118–1135 CE) and Rajaraja II (r. 1146–1173 CE) faced challenges in suppressing provincial revolts and maintaining fiscal discipline, with administrative records indicating a decline in temple grants and revenue collection efficiency as feudatories asserted greater autonomy. Civil wars, including disputes between the main Chola line and collateral branches, further fragmented military resources; for instance, during Kulothunga II's rule (r. 1133–1150 CE), rival claimants diverted troops from border defenses, exacerbating vulnerabilities.[34] External pressures intensified as neighboring powers exploited Chola frailties. The Hoysala Empire, under kings like Narasimha II (r. 1222–1235 CE) and Somesvara (r. 1235–1263 CE), conducted incursions into northern Chola territories around 1173–1210 CE, capturing key forts and reducing Thanjavur's tributary income by an estimated 20–30% based on contemporary inscriptions. Kakatiya forces under Ganapati (r. 1199–1262 CE) raided eastern provinces in the 1190s and 1210s, sacking towns and disrupting trade routes to the Godavari delta. These invasions, combined with the loss of overseas possessions in Southeast Asia by circa 1070 CE, strained the Chola navy and economy, which had relied on maritime levies for up to 40% of imperial revenue during peak expansion. The decisive blow came from the resurgent Pandya dynasty, whose rulers capitalized on Chola disarray to reclaim southern domains. Jatavarman Sundara Pandya (r. 1251–1268 CE) launched campaigns in the 1250s, defeating Hoysala and Chola forces at battles near Madurai and Srirangam, thereby annexing Kongu and Tondaimandalam regions by 1260 CE. His successor, Maravarman Kulasekhara I (r. 1268–1310 CE), consolidated gains through a 1279 CE invasion of the Chola heartland, capturing Rajendra III (r. 1246–1279 CE) and razing parts of Thanjavur, as evidenced by the abrupt cessation of Chola inscriptions and coinage after this date.[35][36] Post-1279 CE, the Chola polity fragmented entirely, with residual loyalists forming minor principalities absorbed into Pandya territories or Hoysala remnants; no unified Chola resistance materialized, marking the end of imperial coherence after nearly four centuries of dominance. This collapse stemmed causally from overreliance on hereditary monarchy without robust succession mechanisms, leading to power vacuums filled by militarized feudatories whose rising capabilities outpaced Chola adaptive capacity.[34]Administration and Military
Central and Provincial Governance
The central administration of the Chola Empire centered on a hereditary monarchy where the king wielded supreme authority over executive, judicial, legislative, and military functions, often portraying himself in inscriptions as a divine ruler upholding dharma. The king was supported by a council of ministers, referred to as the udankottam or assembly of high officials, which included roles such as the chief secretary (periya puranam), treasurer, and military commanders who advised on policy and executed royal decrees recorded on copper plates and stone inscriptions.[37][38] This structure emphasized centralized decision-making, with the king personally overseeing revenue assessment, temple endowments, and military campaigns, as evidenced by detailed administrative orders in temple epigraphs from the 9th to 13th centuries CE. Provincial governance divided the empire into mandalams, expansive provinces typically encompassing conquered regions such as the core Chola-mandalam around the Kaveri delta or the northern Gangaikonda-Solamandalam established by Rajendra I after his 1025 CE campaigns. Each mandalam was administered by a viceroy (mandalikesari or governor), often a royal prince or loyal noble appointed directly by the king to maintain oversight and suppress revolts, with authority to collect taxes and mobilize troops.[39][40] Mandalams were further subdivided into valanadus (district groups of 50–100 villages), managed by assemblies of elders known as periyanattars, which handled local revenue distribution, irrigation maintenance, and dispute resolution under royal guidelines.[41] This tiered system, documented in over 10,000 inscriptions, balanced imperial control with regional autonomy, enabling efficient resource extraction for expansion while relying on local elites for implementation.Military Structure and Organization
The Chola military was structured around a core of professional regiments supplemented by feudal levies from vassals and tribal auxiliaries, with organization reaching its height under Rajaraja I (r. 985–1014 CE), who established a more centralized command system evidenced by temple inscriptions detailing unit endowments and deployments.[42] The army comprised infantry as the primary force, a smaller cavalry wing recruited partly from western Deccan regions due to limited local horse resources, and a prominent elephant corps numbering several thousand animals for shock tactics in battles, as seen in campaigns against the Chalukyas and Pandyas.[43] Chariots, a relic of earlier Indian warfare, were effectively obsolete by the 10th century, with no significant epigraphic or literary evidence of their use in imperial Chola forces.[44] Regiments, known as perumpadai or padai, operated with semi-autonomous corporate identities, often funding their own temples and recording victories in dedicatory grants; approximately 70 such units are referenced across inscriptions, including specialized formations like vil padai (archers), val padai (swordsmen), and kunjar padai (elephants).[42] The elite Velaikkarar (service corps) served as the king's personal guards, prized for loyalty and deployed in garrisons such as those in northern Sri Lanka following Rajaraja's 993 CE conquest, where they maintained order until overwhelmed around 1070 CE.[43] Kaikkolaperumpadai, drawn from the Kaikkolar merchant-weaver guild, formed reliable infantry contingents that doubled as a proto-standing force, distinct from ad hoc feudal mobilizations (bhuta-balam).[43] While no fully modern standing army existed—relying instead on regimental professionalism and rapid mobilization for expeditions, as argued by historians analyzing the absence of dedicated central barracks—the structure supported large-scale operations, with Rajendra I's (r. 1014–1044 CE) northern and Southeast Asian campaigns fielding forces estimated at 100,000–900,000 troops including auxiliaries, though core Chola contingents were likely smaller.[43] Command was hierarchical, with royal officers (senapati or generals) overseeing divisions, supported by training in monastic institutions (ghatikas) for tactical drills in archery and melee.[43] This organization emphasized endurance and logistics, enabling sustained projections of power across diverse terrains from the Deccan to the Maldives.[44]Naval Power and Maritime Campaigns
The Chola navy emerged as a pivotal instrument of imperial expansion during the reigns of Rajaraja I (r. 985–1014 CE) and his son Rajendra I (r. 1014–1044 CE), enabling the transport of armies and the projection of power across the Indian Ocean. Inscriptions from the period, such as those at the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur, reference naval forces (kāṭṭumuraṅga) deployed in support of land campaigns, indicating a structured maritime arm integrated with the army.[5] Under Rajaraja I, the navy facilitated the conquest of northern Sri Lanka by 993 CE, where fleets blockaded coastal regions and ferried troops to outflank Sinhalese defenses, culminating in the capture of Anuradhapura.[45] This operation demonstrated tactical naval superiority over local forces, securing Chola control over key ports like Mantotaī and Polonnaruva.[46] Rajendra I escalated maritime ambitions, dispatching expeditions to the Maldives around 1015–1016 CE to subdue island chieftains and establish tributary relations, thereby safeguarding southern trade lanes.[47] The pinnacle of Chola naval reach occurred in 1025 CE with a large-scale raid on the Srivijaya Empire, targeting its maritime hegemony over the Malacca Strait. Chola fleets, assembled from merchant vessels and war dhows, sacked at least fourteen ports including Kadaram (Kedah), Pannai, and Ilangaiyam, extracting tribute and disrupting Srivijaya's toll-collection monopoly that hindered Indian Ocean commerce.[46][48] Epigraphic records, such as the Sundara-Chola copper plates, commemorate these victories, attributing the success to overwhelming fleet numbers and coordinated assaults rather than permanent occupation.[5] Evidence from Tamil inscriptions and Southeast Asian chronicles suggests the Chola navy relied on opportunistic assemblies of trading ships augmented with oar-powered galleys for combat, rather than a perpetually maintained blue-water fleet, challenging romanticized notions of a standing armada.[49] These campaigns prioritized economic disruption—weakening rivals to spice and silk routes—over territorial annexation, as Chola forces withdrew after securing concessions, evidenced by renewed Srivijaya tribute to China post-1025.[50] Later expeditions under successors, such as Virarajendra I's (r. 1063–1070 CE) punitive strikes against Srivijaya in 1068 CE, reaffirmed naval capabilities but marked diminishing returns amid internal fragmentation.[47] The navy's effectiveness stemmed from leveraging Coromandel Coast shipbuilding expertise and alliances with maritime guilds, fostering Chola dominance in Bay of Bengal trade until the 12th century.[45]Economy and Society
Economic Foundations and Trade Networks
 and canals, enabled multiple harvests per year, with state officials overseeing water distribution to maximize productivity.[51] Land revenue, collected mostly in kind, constituted the bulk of state income, fixed at one-sixth of the gross produce across regions, as evidenced by inscriptions from sites like Chola Singapuram.[52] Supplementary taxes on professions, trade, and irrigation usage diversified fiscal resources, supporting administrative and military expenditures.[53] Monetization advanced under the Cholas through issuance of gold coins like the kasu and gadyana, often featuring royal emblems such as the tiger, which circulated alongside kalanju weight units for bullion transactions.[54] These coins, minted in purity standards rivaling contemporary Islamic dirhams, facilitated both internal commerce and international exchange, underscoring the empire's integration into broader Indian Ocean networks. Taxation extended to customs duties on imports like horses from Arabia, reflecting strategic imports to bolster cavalry.[53] Trade networks expanded dramatically during the imperial phase, propelled by naval prowess and merchant guilds such as the Ainnurruvar (Five Hundred Lords of the Country), which coordinated voyages leveraging monsoon winds. Key ports like Nagapattinam and Korkai exported textiles, spices, pearls, and rice to Southeast Asia, China, and the Persian Gulf, importing aromatics, corals, and metals in return.[55] Rajendra I's expeditions against the Srivijaya Empire around 1025 CE dismantled maritime monopolies, securing direct access to spice trade routes and fostering diplomatic ties with Song China, as recorded in Chinese annals.[56] Inland trade via overland routes connected to northern India, with guilds maintaining warehouses and banking-like credit systems to mitigate risks in long-distance commerce.[57] This thalassocratic orientation not only amassed wealth but also disseminated Chola cultural and religious influences abroad.Social Hierarchy and Institutions
Chola society was stratified according to a hereditary caste system rooted in occupational divisions, with the varna framework providing overarching structure while incorporating regional Tamil elements such as the prominence of agricultural elites. The monarch, claiming Kshatriya status, stood at the pinnacle, embodying divine authority reinforced through alliances with Brahmins via extensive land grants that secured ritual legitimacy and social order.[58][59] Brahmins enjoyed elevated status, exempt from taxes and endowed with brahmadeya villages for Vedic scholarship and temple administration, which positioned them as key intermediaries between the state and populace.[59] The Vellalar and Nattar formed the dominant landowning peasant class, overseeing cultivation and rural economy, often subordinating lower cultivators.[59] Artisans, cowherds (Kovalar), hunters (Vedar), fishermen (Valaiyar), and armed groups (Padaiyacciar) comprised subordinate castes, grouped into broader Valangai (right-hand) and Idangai (left-hand) divisions that reflected occupational alliances and influenced assembly participation and military recruitment.[59] Local institutions emphasized decentralized governance through village assemblies, adapting to settlement types: intercaste villages (tax-paying, mixed populations), brahmadeya (Brahmin-exclusive, revenue-free), and devadana (temple-held lands).[59] The Sabha governed brahmadeya villages, comprising elected members selected via kudavolai (pot-ticket lottery) from qualified individuals—aged 35–70, landowners with irrigated holdings, proficient in Vedas, and free of moral or financial infractions—as detailed in the Uttaramerur inscriptions of Parantaka I (919–921 CE).[59] These assemblies formed variyam committees for functions like irrigation, justice, and temple oversight, ensuring accountability through term limits and audits.[59] Non-Brahmin villages operated under Ur assemblies, handling similar administrative duties with broader community representation, while urban merchant guilds (Nagaram) managed trade regulations and dispute resolution.[59] Temples served as multifaceted institutions, functioning as banks, educational centers, and welfare providers, with Brahmin-led committees administering endowments that sustained social stability amid agrarian dependencies.[58][59] This structure balanced royal oversight with local autonomy, mitigating feudal tendencies through inscriptional checks on elite power.[59]Infrastructure and Public Works
The Chola Empire developed an extensive network of irrigation infrastructure, including tanks (eris), canals, and reservoirs, which sustained agriculture across the Kaveri delta and expanded territories. These systems, often funded by royal endowments and managed by local village assemblies (sabhas or urs), featured sluice gates for controlled water release and earthen embankments to mitigate floods, enabling double-cropping of rice in rain-scarce regions. Inscriptions from the 9th to 13th centuries CE document over a thousand such tanks, with maintenance committees allocating labor and resources for desilting and repairs, reflecting decentralized yet state-supported engineering.[60][61] Under Rajaraja I (r. 985–1014 CE), the Sivaganga tank was constructed near Thanjavur to harvest rainwater and supply the Brihadisvara Temple, integrating religious and utilitarian purposes while irrigating surrounding fields.[62] His successor, Rajendra I (r. 1014–1044 CE), built the Cholagangam reservoir adjacent to his new capital, Gangaikondacholapuram, to commemorate Ganges conquests and support local cultivation, spanning several kilometers in capacity.[63] Later inscriptions, such as a 13th-century record from Kallakurichi, detail interconnected canal networks linking tanks for equitable distribution, underscoring ongoing investments amid empire-wide expansion.[64] Roads and highways facilitated internal trade and troop mobilization, with royal grants funding causeways and rest houses (chathirams) along major routes, though epigraphic evidence prioritizes hydraulic over terrestrial projects.[65] This infrastructure, verified through archaeological remnants and Tamil inscriptions, enhanced economic resilience by channeling monsoon runoff into perennial sources, averting famines documented in contemporary literature like the Silappatikaram.[66][67]Culture, Religion, and Arts
Religious Policies and Patronage
The Chola emperors adhered predominantly to Shaivism, promoting it as the state-favored form of Hinduism through systematic patronage of temples, rituals, and priestly orders. This policy integrated religious devotion with imperial legitimacy, as kings often titled themselves devotees of Shiva (e.g., Sivapadasekhara) and linked military victories to divine favor. Inscriptions from over 10,000 Chola-era temple records detail endowments exceeding thousands of gold kalanjus, villages, and cattle, transforming temples into self-sustaining economic hubs that collected revenues and managed irrigation-linked agriculture.[68] Rajaraja I (r. 985–1014 CE) intensified this patronage by constructing the Brihadisvara Temple (also Rajarajesvaram) in Thanjavur between 1003 and 1010 CE, a monolithic structure symbolizing Shaivite supremacy with its 66-meter vimana tower dedicated to Shiva. Temple epigraphs enumerate donations like 400 gold pots and perpetual lamps funded by village revenues, while royal oversight ensured doctrinal purity through Shaiva Siddhanta texts. Rajendra I (r. 1014–1044 CE) emulated this by erecting the Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple circa 1030 CE, incorporating water from conquered Ganges rivers in rituals to affirm Shaivite cosmology. Later rulers, including Rajaraja II (r. 1146–1163 CE), built the Airavatesvara Temple in Darasuram, perpetuating architectural and liturgical traditions.[69][70] Although Shaivism received preferential treatment, Chola policy tolerated Vaishnavism, with Vishnu temples like those at Srirangam receiving grants, and extended limited support to Buddhism and Jainism. Rajaraja I funded the Buddhist Chudamani Vihara in Nagapattinam (c. 1006 CE) via grants to Southeast Asian affiliates, yet Buddhism and Jainism waned due to resource diversion toward Hindu institutions and bhakti movements emphasizing personal devotion over monasticism. No evidence exists of systematic persecution, but inscriptions show Jain sites repurposed or abandoned as Shaivite dominance grew, reflecting causal prioritization of state-aligned faiths.[71][72] Temple governance via Brahmin-led sabhas (assemblies) administered devadana lands—tax-exempt grants yielding 20-30% of regional produce—fostering autonomy while aligning with royal edicts on festivals and endowments. This structure not only sustained rituals like daily poojas and annual uthsavas but also disseminated Tamil Shaiva literature, such as the Tevaram hymns, embedding religious policy in cultural continuity.[68]Literature and Intellectual Achievements
The Chola dynasty, particularly from the reign of Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) onward, actively patronized Tamil literary production, emphasizing devotional Shaiva and Vaishnava themes alongside epic narratives. Royal courts supported poets and scholars through grants and temple affiliations, leading to the composition and preservation of classical works in Tamil script. This patronage extended to the transcription of earlier Bhakti hymns like the Tevaram collection, which were systematically compiled and ritually performed in major temples such as the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur.[73][74] A pinnacle of Chola-era literature was the Periya Puranam (Great Puranam), composed by Sekkizhar around 1135–1150 CE during the rule of Kulothunga II (1133–1150 CE). This extensive hagiographic epic, spanning over 4,200 stanzas, chronicles the lives of the 63 Nayanars, Tamil Shaiva saints from earlier periods, blending biography, theology, and moral instruction to reinforce Shaivite devotion. Sekkizhar, serving as a minister, drew from oral traditions and earlier texts like the Tiruvilaiyadal Puranam, positioning the work as a counter to Jain epics such as Chivaka Chintamani to promote Hindu orthodoxy. Its influence endures in Tamil religious discourse, with verses inscribed in temples and adapted into performing arts.[75][76] Parallel to Shaiva works, Vaishnava and epic traditions thrived, exemplified by Kamban's Ramavataram (Kamba Ramayanam), completed circa 1180–1200 CE under Kulothunga III (1178–1218 CE). This Tamil adaptation of Valmiki's Ramayana comprises 24,000 verses across six books, innovating with vivid poetic imagery, ethical explorations of dharma, and localized cultural elements like references to Chola landscapes and customs. Kamban, honored with the title Kavi Chakravarti (Emperor of Poets), presented the work at the Srirangam temple, where it gained royal endorsement and widespread recitation. The epic's linguistic sophistication, including complex alankara (ornaments) and virutha meters, elevated Tamil prosody.[77][78] Chola intellectual output extended beyond poetry to include grammatical commentaries and historical prasastis (eulogies) inscribed on temple walls, documenting administrative and military feats in precise Tamil prose. While no major treatises in mathematics or astronomy are directly attributed to Chola scholars—unlike contemporaneous Kerala or northern Indian advancements—the dynasty's stability facilitated educational institutions (salai) attached to temples, where Vedic, literary, and rhetorical studies were taught to Brahmins and others. These efforts preserved and innovated upon Sangam-era traditions, contributing to Tamil's status as a classical language with over 2,000 surviving inscriptions from the period.[79][73]Architecture and Sculpture
Chola architecture reached its zenith in the construction of massive granite temples dedicated predominantly to Shiva, embodying the mature Dravidian style characterized by towering pyramidal vimanas over the sanctum, pillared mandapas for assembly, and enclosing walls with subsidiary shrines. These structures, erected between the 10th and 12th centuries CE, utilized locally quarried hard granite blocks assembled without mortar through precise interlocking joints, reflecting advanced engineering capabilities in quarrying, transportation via elephant teams, and elevation of heavy capstones.[80] The temples served as centers for religious rituals, royal patronage, and community gatherings, with inscriptions detailing construction endowments from the emperors and their officials.[69] The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, commissioned by Rajaraja I and completed in 1010 CE, exemplifies this grandeur, featuring a colossal vimana that dominates the skyline and intricate bas-reliefs on its plinth depicting dancers, musicians, and mythical scenes.[69] Rajendra I replicated and adapted this model in the Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, built around 1030 CE to commemorate his Ganges expedition, incorporating similar proportions but with enhanced sculptural embellishments on the outer walls.[69] By the reign of Rajaraja II in the mid-12th century, innovations appeared in the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram, where the mandapa assumes a chariot form pulled by mythical elephants, adorned with minute carvings of daily life, epics, and floral motifs executed in high relief.[69] Chola sculpture complemented architecture through both stone carvings integral to temple facades and independent bronze icons produced via the lost-wax casting technique in panchaloha alloy. Stone sculptures, often life-sized or larger, portrayed deities, attendants, and narrative panels with fluid anatomy, expressive gestures, and rhythmic compositions influenced by Bharatanatyam dance forms.[81] Bronze works, peaking from the 11th to 13th centuries, included processional images like the iconic Nataraja—Shiva as cosmic dancer trampling ignorance—commissioned for temple festivals and embodying theological concepts of creation and destruction.[82] These bronzes, characterized by slender proportions, intricate jewelry, and dynamic contrapposto, were crafted by specialized guilds under royal oversight, as evidenced by temple records of donations.[83] The enduring quality of Chola sculptural art stems from the durability of granite and the corrosion-resistant alloy, preserving details like the Nataraja's flaming arch symbolizing the cycle of time, which influenced subsequent South Indian traditions.[84] Archaeological evidence from temple sites confirms the scale of production, with hundreds of bronzes recovered, underscoring the empire's investment in artisanal infrastructure tied to religious devotion.[85]Rulers and Succession
Key Emperors and Their Reigns
Vijayalaya Chola (r. 850–870 CE) founded the imperial Chola dynasty by capturing Thanjavur from the Muttaraiyar chiefs during the Pallava-Pandya wars, establishing control over the Kaveri delta and reviving Chola power after centuries of subordination.[14] His reign laid the groundwork for expansion, with early inscriptions attesting to temple constructions and alliances that solidified the dynasty's base in Tamil Nadu.[86] Rajaraja I (r. 985–1014 CE), son of Sundara Chola, transformed the empire through systematic conquests, defeating the Cheras, Pandyas, and Chalukyas while annexing northern Sri Lanka (Ilangai) by 993 CE, as recorded in his Thiruvalangadu plates.[87] His naval campaigns secured the Maldives and Malabar coast, boosting trade, and he commissioned the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur, a granite masterpiece symbolizing Chola architectural prowess and administrative efficiency via detailed copper-plate grants.[24] Rajaraja's revenue reforms, including land surveys and temple endowments, funded these endeavors, with his reign marking the shift to imperial zenith through a professional army and bureaucracy.[87] Rajendra I (r. 1014–1044 CE), Rajaraja's son, extended the empire to its territorial peak with northern expeditions reaching the Ganges by 1023 CE, defeating Eastern Chalukyas, Kalingas, and Palas, earning the title Gangaikondachola.[88] His Southeast Asian naval raid in 1025 CE sacked Srivijaya ports in Sumatra and Malaya, disrupting regional trade monopolies and asserting Chola maritime dominance, as evidenced by Leiden inscriptions.[89] Rajendra founded Gangaikonda Cholapuram as a new capital, building its eponymous temple, and maintained internal stability through viceroys and irrigation projects, though later years saw Chalukya pressures.[88] Kulottunga I (r. 1070–1122 CE), a descendant blending Chola and Eastern Chalukya lines via Rajendra's daughter, consolidated the empire after interregnum strife, abandoning aggressive Deccan campaigns to focus on southern defenses against Pandyas and western Ghats incursions.[90] His long reign stabilized administration with legal codes like the Kulottunga Chola Ula and temple patronage, including expansions at Chidambaram, while trade flourished via guilds, though gradual fragmentation began under successors amid rising Hoysala and Kakatiya threats.[90]Genealogical Overview
The imperial Chola dynasty's genealogy, as reconstructed from contemporary inscriptions and copper plates, begins with Vijayalaya Chola (r. c. 848–871 CE), who captured Thanjavur from the Muttaraiyar and established the family's power base in the Kaveri delta.[91] [92] Earlier Chola rulers, such as Karikala, appear in Sangam literature and later inscriptions but lack firm archaeological or epigraphic corroboration beyond legendary accounts, distinguishing them from the verifiable medieval line.[92] Succession followed patrilineal descent, primarily father to son, though collateral branches intervened during periods of weak heirs or civil strife, as seen in the 10th-century transitions. Vijayalaya's son, Aditya I (r. c. 871–907 CE), defeated the Pallava king Aparajita and consolidated gains against Pandyas.[91] [92] Aditya's son, Parantaka I (r. c. 907–955 CE), expanded into Sri Lanka and the Deccan but faced reversals from Rashtrakutas; his sons Gandaraditya (r. c. 950–957 CE) and Arinjaya (r. c. 956–957 CE) briefly ruled before the line passed to Arinjaya's son, Sundara Chola (r. c. 957–973 CE).[91] The dynasty's zenith aligned with Sundara's son Rajaraja I (r. 985–1014 CE), whose campaigns against Chalukyas, Pandyas, and Sri Lanka were documented in temple endowments like those at Thanjavur.[91] [92] Rajaraja's son, Rajendra I (r. c. 1014–1044 CE), extended the empire northward to the Ganges and overseas to Southeast Asia, per his Gangaikonda Cholapuram inscriptions.[91] [92] Rajendra's sons—Rajadhiraja I (r. c. 1044–1054 CE), killed in battle against Chalukyas, and Rajendra II (r. c. 1054–1063 CE)—succeeded amid joint rulerships, followed by Rajadhiraja's son Virarajendra (r. c. 1063–1070 CE).[91] The line shifted with Kulottunga I (r. 1070–1122 CE), a grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter and Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja Narendra, who seized the throne from Virarajendra's son Adhirajendra (r. 1070 CE) to avert collapse.[91] This Chalukya-Chola fusion stabilized the dynasty, producing Vikrama Chola (r. c. 1118–1135 CE), son of Kulottunga I, and subsequent rulers like Kulottunga II (r. c. 1133–1150 CE), Rajaraja II (r. c. 1146–1173 CE), and Kulottunga III (r. c. 1178–1218 CE), who defended against Hoysalas and Pandyas.[91] The final kings, Rajaraja III (r. c. 1216–1256 CE) and Rajendra III (r. c. 1246–1279 CE), sons in direct descent, presided over fragmentation and Pandya conquest, ending independent Chola rule.[91]| Ruler | Reign (approx.) | Key Relation |
|---|---|---|
| Vijayalaya | 848–871 CE | Founder |
| Aditya I | 871–907 CE | Son of Vijayalaya |
| Parantaka I | 907–955 CE | Son of Aditya I |
| Gandaraditya | 950–957 CE | Son of Parantaka I |
| Arinjaya | 956–957 CE | Brother of Gandaraditya |
| Sundara Chola | 957–973 CE | Son of Arinjaya |
| Uttama Chola | 973–985 CE | Son of Gandaraditya (collateral) |
| Rajaraja I | 985–1014 CE | Son of Sundara |
| Rajendra I | 1014–1044 CE | Son of Rajaraja I |
| Rajadhiraja I | 1044–1054 CE | Son of Rajendra I |
| Rajendra II | 1054–1063 CE | Brother of Rajadhiraja I |
| Virarajendra | 1063–1070 CE | Son of Rajadhiraja I |
| Kulottunga I | 1070–1122 CE | Grandson of Rajendra I (Chalukya line) |
| Vikrama Chola | 1118–1135 CE | Son of Kulottunga I |
| Rajendra III | 1246–1279 CE | Son of Rajaraja III; last ruler |