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Kurdistan Uezd
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Key Information

Kurdistan Uezd,[a] also known colloquially as Red Kurdistan,[b] was a Soviet administrative unit within the Azerbaijan SSR that existed for six years from 1923 to 1929 and included the districts of Kalbajar, Lachin, Qubadli and part of Jabrayil.[2] It was part of Azerbaijan SSR, with the administrative center being in Lachin. It was briefly succeeded by the Kurdistan Okrug from 30 May to 23 July 1930.

History

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Establishment

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The uezd was established on 7 July 1923, by the order of the government of the Azerbaijani SSR. Sergei Kirov was appointed as its first head.[3] The majority of Kurds in the region were Shia, unlike the Sunni Kurds of the Nakhichevan uezd and other areas of the Middle East. The official language was Kurmanji[4]

At the 1926 Soviet Census, the uezd had a total population of 51,426 people, with ethnic Kurds constituting 72.3% or 37,182 people. However, according to the same census, 92.5% of the population of the uezd cited Turkic (later known as Azerbaijani) as their native tongue.[5]

Dissolution and persecution of Kurds

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On 8 April 1929, the Sixth Azerbaijani Congress of Soviets approved a reform of the administrative structure, abolishing all uezds, including the Kurdistan uezd.[2] On 30 May 1930, the short-lived Kurdistan Okrug was founded in its place. The okrug was created by the Soviet authorities in order to attract the sympathies of Kurds in neighboring Iran and Turkey and take advantage of Kurdish nationalist movements in those countries. The Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs, not wanting to damage relations with Turkey and Iran, protested strongly, leading to a sharp change in policy regarding Kurdish nationalism. Hence, Kurdistan okrug was disbanded on 23 July 1930.[6]

After the dissolution, Kurds continued to assimilate into the dominant culture of the neighbouring Azeris,[7] but some religious Yazidi tribes mostly stayed the same. Historically, mixed Azeri-Kurdish marriages were commonplace; however the Kurdish language was rarely passed on to the children in such marriages.[8]

In the late 1930s, Soviet authorities deported most of the Kurdish population of Azerbaijan and Armenia to Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan.[9][2] The Kurds of Georgia also became victims of Joseph Stalin's Great Purge in 1944.[10] Years later, Kurds immigrated to Kazakhstan from the neighbouring countries, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.[9]

See also

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References

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Kurdistan Uezd

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Kurdistan Uezd, commonly referred to as Red Kurdistan, was an autonomous administrative district within the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, existing from 1923 to 1929, designed to provide territorial recognition and limited self-governance to the Kurdish population in the region's highland areas. The uyezd encompassed territories including the districts of Lachin (its administrative center), Kelbajar, and parts of surrounding areas, where Kurds formed a majority, comprising approximately 74% of the population alongside Azerbaijanis and other groups. Established as part of the early Soviet nationalities policy to foster ethnic loyalty through korenizatsiya (indigenization), it represented one of the few instances of formal Kurdish autonomy under Soviet rule, though constrained by central oversight from Baku and Moscow. The creation of Kurdistan Uezd on May 23, 1923, followed Bolshevik efforts to integrate Caucasian Kurds into the socialist framework after the 1920 incorporation of Azerbaijan into the USSR, building on pre-existing Kurdish settlements displaced from Ottoman and Persian territories. During its existence, the district implemented measures such as Kurdish-language education, cultural institutions, and local soviets dominated by Kurdish communists, aiming to promote literacy and suppress feudal structures among the largely agrarian population. However, it faced internal challenges including Azeri administrative interference and external diplomatic pressures, notably from Turkey, which viewed any Kurdish entity as a threat to its territorial integrity. Dissolved on April 8, 1929, by decree of the Azerbaijani amid reorganizations that fragmented its territories into ordinary raions, the uyezd was briefly succeeded by the in 1930, which itself lasted only until July of that year before abolition. The termination reflected shifting Soviet priorities under , prioritizing economic centralization over ethnic autonomies and responding to geopolitical concerns, leading to the erosion of Kurdish cultural gains and eventual mass deportations of Azerbaijani to in 1937 as part of broader purges targeting perceived unreliable minorities. Despite its brevity, Red Kurdistan remains a symbolic reference in Kurdish nationalist discourse for lost opportunities of within a communist framework.

Geographical and Demographic Context

Location and Borders


Kurdistan Uezd occupied a mountainous territory in the southwestern Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, situated between the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast and Armenia's Syunik Province. Established on May 23, 1923, as an autonomous administrative unit, its core areas encompassed the districts of Lachin (administrative center), Kalbajar, Qubadli, Zangilan, and parts of Jabrayil, forming a compact region of Kurdish-majority settlements. The 's western borders adjoined the , positioning it as a buffer zone amid ethnic complexities in the . To the east, it neighbored the Armenian-populated within SSR, while southern extents approached territories near the Nakhchivan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and the Iranian frontier, though remaining fully within SSR jurisdiction. This configuration reflected Soviet efforts to delineate national autonomies amid diverse highland populations, with the uezd spanning rugged terrain conducive to pastoral Kurdish communities.

Pre-1923 Population Composition

Prior to the establishment of in 1923, the territories that would form it—primarily portions of Kubatlu (Qubadli), , and (Kalbajar) districts within the SSR—featured a mixed ethnic composition dominated by , including and (then often termed "Turks" in records), alongside a diminishing Armenian presence. These areas had experienced significant demographic shifts due to the (1918–1920), during which Armenian communities in border regions faced expulsions and flight, reducing their share. Additionally, and the Ottoman-Armenian conflicts prompted migrations of groups from eastern , bolstering the local element, many of whom were semi-nomadic and integrated through tribal ties. Ethnic classification proved challenging, as substantial numbers of had adopted Azerbaijani Turkish as their primary language, leading to undercounting in some records. The 1921 Azerbaijan Agricultural Census, focusing on rural populations, provides the most proximate pre-formation data for relevant uezds contributing territory. In Kubatlu uezd, Muslims (Kurds and ) formed over 95% of inhabitants, with minimal. Jevanshir uezd, overlapping with Kelbajar areas, showed a more balanced mix but still Muslim plurality. These figures underscore the rationale for delimiting a Kurdish from Muslim-majority zones, though post-formation censuses (e.g., 1924) reported higher Kurdish proportions (80.7%), likely due to boundary adjustments favoring concentrated settlements and reclassifications.
Uezd (1921 Agricultural Census)Total Rural PopulationKurds (%)Azerbaijanis/Turks (%)Armenians (%)
Kubatlu39,49635.4 (13,994)59.6 (23,517)5.0 (1,975)
Jevanshir (partial overlap)84,52717.3 (14,680)47.3 (40,032)35.2 (29,815)

Soviet Nationality Policy and Formation

Bolshevik Indigenization Efforts

The Bolshevik policy of korenizatsiya, initiated in the early 1920s, sought to foster the development of non-Russian nationalities by promoting their languages, cultures, and administrative elites within the Soviet framework, aiming to secure loyalty to the regime amid post-revolutionary instability. In the Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic, this policy extended to the Kurdish population, recognized as a distinct national minority numbering approximately 40,000–69,000 in 1926, primarily in the mountainous regions near Karabakh. The efforts targeted semi-nomadic Kurds with low literacy rates—around 1% among Yezidi subgroups in 1924—to modernize them through Soviet institutions while countering potential pan-Turkic or separatist influences. A core implementation was the establishment of Kurdistan Uezd on July 16, 1923, decreed by Bolshevik leader under Joseph Stalin's influence, designating Kurdish-majority areas in , , and Kubatly districts as an autonomous entity to enable localized governance and cultural autonomy. Administrative services, including courts and party organs, incorporated the Kurdish language, with 45 villages initially organized for internal self-administration in Kurdish by 1925. This reflected korenizatsiya's emphasis on titular nationality dominance, training Kurdish cadres via affirmative quotas in Soviet educational systems, such as tekhnikums where minority language instruction aligned with parental preferences. Cultural and educational initiatives accelerated under this policy, including the creation of Kurdish boarding schools staffed by 250 teachers offering five-year programs to boost and ideological conformity. Publications like the Sovetskii Kurdistan disseminated in Kurdish script, while radio broadcasts and cultural services reinforced native-language access to Soviet modernity. These measures, pragmatic in intent to preempt , nonetheless cultivated a nascent Kurdish intelligentsia, though constrained by Azerbaijani oversight and the policy's ultimate subordination to central Bolshevik control. By the late 1920s, resistance to collectivization and external Kurdish unrest prompted curtailment, revealing korenizatsiya's provisional nature.

Establishment Process and Key Figures

The establishment of Kurdistan Uezd, also known as Red Kurdistan, occurred amid the Bolshevik implementation of korenizatsiya, a policy promoting the cultural and administrative autonomy of non-Russian ethnic groups to secure loyalty to the Soviet regime and counter external influences from neighboring states like and Persia. In the , Kurdish communities in the southwestern highlands, numbering around 37,000 by early 1920s estimates, were concentrated in districts such as , , Qubadli, and parts of and , prompting Soviet authorities to designate these areas for a dedicated to facilitate Kurdish-language administration, education, and party organization. The uezd was formally decreed on July 16, 1923, by the of the , transforming existing raions into a Kurdish-majority administrative entity spanning approximately 1,400 square kilometers with a where comprised over 70 percent. This process reflected pragmatic Soviet efforts to stabilize the Transcaucasus by addressing minority grievances post-Civil War, including land redistribution to Kurdish peasants and suppression of tribal structures under Bolshevik oversight, though implementation faced challenges from low literacy rates (under 5 percent among ) and resistance from Azeri officials wary of border autonomies. The decree emphasized Kurdish self-governance within socialist parameters, including the creation of local soviets and promotion of the Sorani dialect in official use, as part of broader nationality policies endorsed by Lenin-era directives to prevent "Great Russian chauvinism." Key figures included Sergei Kirov, the influential Bolshevik leader serving as First Secretary of the Azerbaijan Communist Party from 1921 to 1926, who directly endorsed and facilitated the uezd's formation as a means to integrate Kurds into Soviet structures and bolster regional party control. Among Kurdish communists, Shemo (1897–1978), a veteran revolutionary who joined the Bolsheviks in 1917 and contributed to early Kurdish agitation in the Caucasus, played a role in advocating for the entity's cultural initiatives and propaganda efforts. Local figures such as Kurdish soviet chairs in Lachin and Kalbajar districts implemented initial governance, though ultimate authority rested with Baku-appointed overseers to ensure alignment with central policies.

Administrative Structure and Operations

Governance Mechanisms

Kurdistan Uezd was governed through the standard Soviet administrative framework for uezds, comprising a local soviet of workers', peasants', and soldiers' deputies that elected an executive committee (ispolkom) tasked with executing directives from the SSR's Central Executive Committee. This structure emphasized centralized oversight from , with the uezd's decisions subject to approval by higher republican authorities, reflecting the non-autonomous status of the unit despite its national designation. The establishment of this governance occurred on July 16, 1923, via a decree issued by , chairman of the SSR's Central Executive Committee, following discussions in its presidium. As part of the Bolshevik () policy, governance mechanisms incorporated efforts to promote Kurdish cadres into administrative roles, aiming to replace Russian and Azerbaijani officials with locals fluent in Kurdish dialects for policy implementation in , , and cultural affairs. Kurdish activists participated in regional party organs, as evidenced by the "Soveshchanie kurdskogo aktiva" (Conference of the Kurdish Active) held on April 22, 1926, which addressed local governance challenges and policy adherence under the Azerbaijan (Bolshevik). However, practical authority remained limited by Azeri dominance in republican leadership and logistical issues in the mountainous terrain, constraining full . The 's administrative center in coordinated district-level soviets in areas such as Kelbajar, Qubadli, and parts of , focusing on collectivization preparatory measures and enforcement per Soviet nationality policy. No dedicated revolutionary committee (revkom) operated post-establishment, as the formed during a phase of consolidated Soviet control rather than active transitions. Key oversight came from the SSR's Commissariat for Nationalities, ensuring alignment with union-wide directives, though local implementation often prioritized over ethnic self-rule.

Cultural and Educational Initiatives

As part of the Soviet korenizatsiya policy initiated in the early , which sought to foster national cultures and languages among minorities to consolidate Bolshevik rule, the Kurdistan Uezd implemented initial measures to promote Kurdish linguistic and cultural development. Administrative bodies in the uezd, centered in , encouraged the use of Kurdish (primarily the Sorani dialect) in local soviets and basic governance, alongside efforts to train indigenous cadres for party and state roles. Educational initiatives focused on combating illiteracy among the predominantly rural , estimated at around 41,000 in the by 1926, through campaigns and the adaptation of a Latin-based Kurdish for instructional materials. However, systematic Kurdish-language schooling in , including primers and teacher preparation, did not fully materialize until after 1930, with only preliminary collections and documentation occurring during the uezd's existence to support cultural consolidation. Cultural activities emphasized socialist reorientation of traditional practices, including the formation of local groups for in Kurdish and the promotion of narratives through vernacular storytelling, though resource shortages and short-lived limited outputs to modest publications and community gatherings rather than theaters or widespread media. These efforts reflected broader goals but faced challenges from low rates and integration pressures, yielding limited verifiable institutions by 1929.

Dissolution and Immediate Repercussions

Policy Shifts Under Centralization

In the late , Soviet nationalities policy underwent a significant transformation as consolidated power, prioritizing rapid industrialization, collectivization, and centralized economic planning over the earlier korenizatsiya (indigenization) efforts that had promoted ethnic cultural development and limited autonomies since the early . This shift reflected a causal prioritization of state unity and efficiency, viewing decentralized ethnic structures as potential impediments to extracting resources for the First Five-Year Plan (1928–1932) and mitigating risks of nationalist deviations amid internal purges and external threats like the Turkish of 1925. Autonomous units, including uezds, faced restructuring as the Soviet government abolished all such districts across the USSR in April 1929 to streamline administration into larger okrugs and raions, ostensibly for better integration into national economic directives and reduced localism. For minority nationalities like the , this marked the curtailment of affirmative policies, replacing culturally tailored governance with direct oversight from republican centers such as , thereby eroding provisions for Kurdish-language administration and diminishing elite recruitment based on . The Kurdistan Uezd's dissolution on April 8, 1929, approved by the Sixth Azerbaijani Congress of Soviets, exemplified this centralization, with its territory—spanning approximately 1,400 square kilometers and home to around 45,000 —reintegrated into the SSR without retaining full autonomy. Officially attributed to the all-union uezd elimination for administrative , the move also addressed Moscow's apprehensions over Kurdish cross-border ties, particularly following unrest in that heightened fears of or foreign influence in the volatile . Subsequent policies accelerated assimilation, as Azerbaijan authorities resettled ethnic Azeris into former Kurdish districts to dilute demographic concentrations, while Kurdish cultural institutions faced defunding and ideological realignment toward Soviet orthodoxy, presaging broader repressions including the 1937 deportations of over 3,000 Kurds to on suspicions of unreliability. This transition underscored a pragmatic abandonment of experimental autonomies when they conflicted with central imperatives, prioritizing coercive uniformity over ethnic pluralism despite initial Bolshevik commitments to national .

Territorial Reorganization

Following the decision of the Sixth Azerbaijani on 8 April 1929 to abolish all s as part of a USSR-wide administrative transitioning from to systems, the territory of Kurdistan was subdivided and integrated into the SSR without retaining autonomous status. The former 's core areas—previously encompassing Kurdish-majority districts around , , and Qubadli—were reorganized into three principal s: (centered on the town of ), (including the Kelbajar district), and Qubadli (covering the Kubatli area). Peripheral portions of the , such as areas in and eastern , were incorporated into adjacent raions or uezds within , effectively dispersing centers across non-autonomous units under direct oversight. This fragmentation totaled approximately 1,400 square kilometers of former uezd land, with no preservation of ethnic-territorial boundaries. The reform aligned with Stalin-era policies prioritizing economic centralization over korenizatsiya (), subordinating local ethnic administration to republican-level governance. Local Kurdish elites protested the loss of , but petitions to maintain some form of were rejected, with territories reassigned based on agricultural and infrastructural criteria rather than demographic composition. By late , administrative records showed the raions' populations—estimated at around 45,000 out of 100,000 total residents pre-dissolution—now reported under Azerbaijani SSR censuses without separate ethnic delineations. This immediate reconfiguration set the stage for further centralization, as the raions operated as standard subdivisions until temporary regrouping in 1930.

Post-Dissolution Developments

Temporary Revival as Okrug

On 30 April 1929, the Kurdistan Uezd was abolished as part of the Soviet Union's transition from uezd to raion administrative divisions, with its territories initially incorporated into the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast. Less than a year later, on 30 May 1930, the Central Executive Committee of the Azerbaijan SSR established the Kurdistan Okrug to restore limited Kurdish autonomy, designating Lachin as its capital. This new unit expanded beyond the former uezd boundaries to include the entirety of Zangilansky District, reflecting a brief policy reversal amid ongoing indigenization (korenizatsiia) efforts to bolster minority nationalities. The okrug's creation aligned with residual Bolshevik commitments to national delimitation, though it operated under stricter central oversight than the , with governance focused on local raions rather than broader self-rule. Kurdish elites, including figures from the prior uezd administration, were provisionally reinstated to manage cultural and agricultural initiatives, but the structure lacked the uezd's dedicated schools and presses due to resource constraints. This revival proved ephemeral; on 23 July 1930, the Kurdistan Okrug was dissolved alongside all other Soviet okrugs as part of a centralizing reform that eliminated intermediate administrative tiers to streamline control and reduce ethnic autonomies perceived as inefficient. Its territories were subdivided into standard raions—such as Lachin and Qubadli—subordinated directly to the Azerbaijan SSR, marking the end of any formal Kurdish territorial autonomy in the region until post-Soviet claims emerged. The rapid reversal underscored shifting priorities under Stalin's consolidation, prioritizing economic collectivization over nationality policies.

Stalinist Repressions and Deportations

In the mid-1930s, as part of the , Soviet authorities intensified repressions against Kurdish elites and cultural institutions in the former Kurdistan Uezd territories of the Azerbaijan SSR. Kurdish-language schools, newspapers, and the theater in were closed, and Kurdish intellectuals and members faced arrest and execution on charges of , , or activity. These measures aligned with of July 1937, which targeted "anti-Soviet elements" among border minorities suspected of ties to or . Deportations escalated following the (SNK) Resolution No. 2123-420ss of December 17, 1936, which authorized the removal of from and to on grounds of and prevention of . In late 1937, approximately 3,101 from were deported to , with many families given minimal notice and transported in harsh conditions, resulting in high mortality rates en route. This operation depopulated Kurdish-majority areas in the and districts, reducing the registered Kurdish population in SSR from over 37,000 in the 1926 to about 5,675 by the 1939 . The deportees were classified as "special settlers" under oversight, subjected to forced labor in collective farms and restricted mobility, with any resistance met by further punishment. These actions reflected Stalin's broader policy of preemptively neutralizing ethnic groups near volatile borders, framing as potential fifth columns amid tensions with neighboring states. While some sources attribute the scale to exaggerated threat assessments during the Terror, the operations systematically dismantled remaining Kurdish autonomy structures established post-1923.

Legacy and Historical Debates

Factors Contributing to Abolition

The abolition of Kurdistan Uezd occurred on April 8, 1929, when the Sixth Azerbaijani approved a comprehensive administrative reform that eliminated all uezds across the , replacing them with larger units to consolidate territorial administration and reduce bureaucratic fragmentation. This restructuring directly targeted Kurdistan Uezd, whose territory—primarily in the —was subdivided and integrated into adjacent Azerbaijani administrative divisions without preserving Kurdish-specific governance. A primary driver was the Soviet leadership's pivot toward intensified centralization under , which increasingly perceived ethnic autonomies as incubators for separatist ideologies that threatened the unitary . By the late , the earlier korenizatsiya policy of promoting indigenous cultures and replacing Russian officials with locals had waned amid preparations for forced collectivization and the first Five-Year Plan, favoring Moscow's direct oversight over peripheral experiments in national . Economic inefficiencies in sustaining small, ethnically delineated units like the , coupled with administrative hurdles in resource-scarce highland regions, further justified the in official rationales. Local dynamics exacerbated these pressures, as Azerbaijani Soviet authorities exhibited resistance rooted in ethnic , limiting the uezd's operational and Kurdish cultural initiatives despite nominal support from . This friction aligned with broader geopolitical caution, as Soviet policymakers weighed risks of Kurdish irredentism spilling across borders into or , though primary documentation emphasizes internal consolidation over external diplomacy as the catalyst. The uezd's brief reconfiguration as Kurdistan Okrug in May 1930 underscored the transitional nature of the change, but its full elimination by July 1930 confirmed the irreversible shift away from designated Kurdish territories.

Long-Term Impact on Caucasian Kurds

The dissolution of Kurdistan Uezd in April 1929 initiated a shift toward assimilationist policies that eroded Kurdish institutional presence in the Caucasus, curtailing autonomous governance and redirecting resources to central Soviet structures. This transition suppressed localized Kurdish administrative functions, integrating former uezd territories into Azerbaijani districts such as Lachin and Kalbajar, which diminished opportunities for collective self-organization among Caucasian Kurds. By the early 1930s, Kurdish-language education and publishing, which had briefly flourished with over 100 schools and newspapers like Rizgar (Liberation), faced systematic reduction, accelerating linguistic shift toward Russian and Azerbaijani among remaining communities. Stalinist deportations from 1937 onward inflicted profound demographic and social disruption on Caucasian Kurds, targeting them as "unreliable elements" amid broader purges of border minorities. In 1937 alone, approximately 1,300 Kurds were expelled from and to , followed by waves in 1938 and 1944 affecting tens of thousands more, with operations involving forced marches under oversight that resulted in high mortality from exposure, disease, and starvation—estimates indicate up to 20-25% fatality rates in transit for similar ethnic groups. These relocations scattered Kurdish populations, reducing their numbers in the Transcaucasus from around 40,000 in the to scattered remnants by the , while exiles in and formed isolated settlements that preserved some oral traditions but underwent partial . Over decades, these events fostered fragmented identity among Caucasian , with deportees' descendants in numbering over 100,000 by the but experiencing cultural dilution through intermarriage and policies that banned Kurdish script in the 1940s. In the proper, surviving communities—primarily in and Georgia—faced ongoing marginalization, lacking rehabilitation akin to that granted to or post-1956, which perpetuated distrust of central authorities and limited ethnic mobilization. Post-Soviet dissolution in exacerbated this, as Armenian lost residual cultural supports amid ethnic conflicts like , prompting mass emigration to and ; today, fewer than 5,000 self-identified remain in , often assimilated into Armenian society with minimal institutional recognition. This legacy underscores a causal chain from aborted to enforced dispersal, yielding enduring demographic dispersion and attenuated national cohesion for Caucasian .

References

  1. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/iranian-studies/article/rise-of-red-kurdistan/321D26AE4B4F8C796FDC1AFF9AF2F3B2
  2. https://kurdishpeople.org/red-kurdistan/
  3. https://kulturnistudia.cz/soviet-nationality-policy-towards-kurds-1917-1956/
  4. https://www.meforum.org/mef-observer/red-kurdistan-a-soviet-experiment-and-its-relevance-today
  5. https://www.workersliberty.org/story/2021-06-22/1920s-red-kurdistan
  6. https://www.duvarenglish.com/columns/2020/10/03/red-kurdistan-in-nagorno-karabakh
  7. https://arar.sci.am/Content/366633
  8. https://geghard-saf.am/js/download.php?file=60/article-t6zLdKkNoDHsvgjFwM3ehZa8UlT7Q2cfyRY1VAXW.pdf
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  10. https://medyanews.net/ankaras-opposition-to-kurdish-autonomy-in-soviet-union-revealed-in-new-documents/
  11. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5029152
  12. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24483003
  13. https://kurdishstudies.net/menu-script/index.php/KS/article/download/153/142/143
  14. https://www.academia.edu/46899745/_RED_KURDISTAN_HISTORICAL_CONTEXT_AND_NEW_PERSPECTIVES_
  15. https://origins.osu.edu/connecting-history/top-ten-origins-russia-s-relations-kurds
  16. https://brill.com/edcollchap-oa/book/9789004506176/BP000009.xml
  17. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-the-kurds/yezidis-in-the-soviet-union/A1450C2BC747F25894973D1E75502562
  18. https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/soviet-massive-deportations-chronology.html
  19. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/235168
  20. https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/u/ussr/ussr.919/usssr919full.pdf
  21. https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/20692/bruinessen_95_impactofthedissolutionofthesovietunion.pdf%3Bsequence=1
  22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45405684
  23. https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/20692
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