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Kelp gull
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Kelp gull
SouthShetland-2016-Livingston Island (Hannah Point)–Kelp gull (Larus dominicanus).jpg
Adult in Livingston Island, South Shetland Islands
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Charadriiformes
Family: Laridae
Genus: Larus
Species:
L. dominicanus
Binomial name
Larus dominicanus

The kelp gull (Larus dominicanus), also known as the Dominican gull, is a gull that breeds on coasts and islands through much of the Southern Hemisphere. The nominate L. d. dominicanus is the subspecies found around South America, parts of Australia (where it overlaps with the Pacific gull), and New Zealand (where it is known as the black-backed gull, the southern black-backed gull, mollyhawk[2] – particularly the juveniles,[3] or by its Māori name karoro). L. d. vetula (known as the Cape gull) is a subspecies occurring around Southern Africa.

The specific name comes from the Dominican Order of friars, who wear black and white habits.[4]

Description

[edit]

The kelp gull superficially resembles two gulls from further north in the Atlantic Ocean, the lesser black-backed gull and the great black-backed gull, and is intermediate in size between these two species. This species ranges from 54 to 65 cm (21 to 26 in) in total length, from 128 to 142 cm (50 to 56 in) in wingspan and from 540 to 1,390 g (1.19 to 3.06 lb) in weight. Adult males and females weigh on average 1,000 g (2.2 lb) and 900 g (2.0 lb) respectively. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 37.3 to 44.8 cm (14.7 to 17.6 in), the bill is 4.4 to 5.9 cm (1.7 to 2.3 in) and the tarsus is 5.3 to 7.5 cm (2.1 to 3.0 in).[5][6][7] The adult kelp gull has black upper parts and wings. The head, underparts, tail, and the small "mirrors" at the wing tips are white. The bill is yellow with a red spot, and the legs are greenish-yellow (brighter and yellower when breeding, duller and greener when not breeding). The call is a strident ki-och. Juveniles have dull legs, a black bill, a dark band in the tail, and an overall grey-brown plumage densely edged whitish, but they rapidly get a pale base to the bill and largely white head and underparts. They take three or four years to reach maturity.

Subspecies

[edit]

There are five subspecies of kelp gull. The African subspecies L. d. vetula is sometimes split as the Cape gull, L. vetula. It has a more angular head and a smaller shorter bill. The adult has a dark eye, whereas the nominate kelp gull usually has a pale eye. Young Cape gulls have almost identical plumage to similarly aged kelp gulls.

Image Subspecies Distribution
L. d. dominicanus, (Lichtenstein, 1823) South America, Falklands, South Georgia, Australia & New Zealand
L. d. vetula, (Bruch, 1853) Southern Africa
L. d. judithae, (Jiguet, 2002) subantarctic islands in the Indian Ocean
L. d. melisandae, (Jiguet, 2002) southern & southwestern Madagascar
L. d. austrinus, (Fleming, 1924) Antarctica & Antarctic islands

The kelp gull is a rare vagrant to the United States, with the first record in 1989 on Chandeleur Islands in Louisiana. They have interbred with American herring gull on these islands, leading to intermediate birds that may backcross to one another. After Hurricane Katrina in 2005, breeding populations of the two species and their hybrids were displaced from the island, though putative hybrids have been reported elsewhere and may be the result of other offshore colonies.[8] In 2025, a kelp gull was found living on the roof of a warehouse in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.[9]

Behaviour

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Kelp gulls are omnivores like most Larus gulls, and they will scavenge as well as seek suitable small prey. They gather on landfills and a sharp increase in population is therefore considered as an indicator for a degraded environment.[10] Kelp gulls have been observed feeding on living right whales since at least 1996.[11] The kelp gull uses its powerful beak to peck down centimetres into the skin and blubber, often leaving the whales with large open sores, some of which have been observed to be half a meter in diameter. This predatory behavior has been documented in Argentinian waters.[12] At rocky sites along the Southern African coast, such as at Boulders Beach in Cape Town, kelp gulls (Larus dominicanus vetula) can be seen picking up shellfish and repeatedly flying up several meters and dropping them onto the rocks below in order to break them open.[13] They have also been reported pecking the eyes out of seal pups on the coast of Namibia before attacking the blind seals in a group.[14]

The nest is a shallow depression on the ground lined with vegetation and feathers. The female usually lays 2 or 3 eggs.[15] Both parents feed the young birds.

[edit]
  • Kelp gull
  • At Concón, Chile
    At Concón, Chile
  • Adult and two chicks in New Zealand
    Adult and two chicks in New Zealand
  • Juvenile in New Zealand
    Juvenile in New Zealand
  • Kelp gull in flight
    Kelp gull in flight
  • Subspecies L. d. dominicanus stealing a meal of shellfish from blackish oystercatchers in Bahía Inglesa, Chile
    Subspecies L. d. dominicanus stealing a meal of shellfish from blackish oystercatchers in Bahía Inglesa, Chile

Cape gull (Larus dominicanus vetula or Larus vetula)

[edit]

The Cape gull differs from other forms of kelp gulls by its darker iris and larger body and bill size. The Southern African population is estimated to include 11,000 breeding pairs, and is expanding.[16]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Kelp gull

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The kelp gull (Larus dominicanus) is a large in the family , measuring 54–65 cm in length with a of 128–142 cm, featuring distinctive white head, neck, underbody, rump, and tail plumage contrasted by slate-black upperwings and back, a yellow bill tipped with red on the lower , and yellow legs. Native to the , it is a highly adaptable and opportunistic species that thrives in coastal environments, often forming large colonies for breeding on cliffs, islands, beaches, and even urban rooftops. Widely distributed across southern South America from Ecuador and Brazil southward, southern Africa including Madagascar, Australia, New Zealand, subantarctic islands, and the Antarctic Peninsula, the kelp gull occupies a range spanning approximately 163 million km² and is non-migratory within its core areas, though occasional vagrants appear farther north such as in the United States or Senegal. Its preferred habitats include harbors, estuaries, beaches, lagoons, and near-coastal pastures, where it exploits both marine and terrestrial resources, demonstrating remarkable tolerance to human presence and pollution. The species is divided into five subspecies—dominicanus, austrinus, judithae, vetula, and melisandae—reflecting regional variations in size and plumage intensity. As omnivorous foragers, kelp gulls consume a diverse diet of molluscs (such as mussels and ), , crustaceans, echinoderms, arthropods, eggs and chicks (including their own), small mammals, carrion, and human refuse, often scavenging at landfills or dropping prey on rocks to access internals. Breeding occurs from late September to January in colonies of up to several hundred pairs, with nests constructed from dried plants and ; females typically lay 2–3 eggs, which are incubated for 23–30 days, and chicks after 45–61 days. Classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, the global population is estimated at 3.3–4.3 million individuals and appears to be increasing, though threats include oil spills, diseases, and competition in urban settings.

Taxonomy and Systematics

Etymology and Naming

The scientific name of the kelp gull is Larus dominicanus Lichtenstein, 1823. The genus name derives from the Latin and Greek word for "," reflecting its classification within the gull family . The specific epithet dominicanus alludes to the black-and-white plumage of the bird, which resembles the habits worn by friars of the , a connection noted in early taxonomic descriptions. The common name "kelp gull" originates from the bird's frequent association with kelp beds along southern hemisphere coasts, where it commonly forages for marine prey among the seaweed. In regions like New Zealand, it is alternatively known as the "southern black-backed gull," a name emphasizing its dark mantle and widespread southern distribution, with early records dating to European explorers including observations during James Cook's voyages in 1770 and 1773. The name "Dominican gull" is also used in some contexts, directly referencing the etymology of the scientific name.

Classification and Evolution

The Kelp Gull (Larus dominicanus) is classified in the Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata, Class Aves, Order , Family , and Genus . This placement situates it among the large white-headed gulls within the subfamily Larinae, a group characterized by molecular phylogenies that reveal non-monophyly in the traditional genus, necessitating revisions based on analyses. The evolutionary history of the Kelp Gull is embedded within the broader radiation of , with evidence of gull-like birds (Lari) dating to the early , approximately 20–15 million years ago, as seen in deposits from Saint-Gérand-le-Puy, . The family underwent rapid cladogenesis during the , leading to the diversification of modern genera, though species like the Kelp Gull represent a more recent lineage. Genetic studies indicate close phylogenetic relations to large , such as the Herring Gull (Larus argentatus), within the white-headed , but with a distinct radiation in the south driven by high dispersal and adaptation to marine and coastal environments. Multilocus evidence from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA supports a recent origin for the Kelp Gull around 241,200 years ago, with population expansions following bottlenecks approximately 10,000 years ago, aligning with post-Pleistocene environmental changes that facilitated colonization of subantarctic and Antarctic regions. This Southern Hemisphere evolution reflects isolation by oceanic barriers and currents, resulting in low overall genetic variability but structured populations across continents. Currently recognized as a single species, taxonomic debates focus on potential splitting of subspecies based on phenotypic and genetic divergence, such as in Antarctic and New Zealand populations, though multilocus data affirm monotypic status without evidence for full speciation.

Subspecies

The Kelp Gull (Larus dominicanus) is currently recognized as comprising five subspecies, distinguished primarily by geographic isolation, subtle biometric variations, and differences in plumage and bare-part coloration. These taxa reflect adaptations to diverse coastal and island environments across the Southern Hemisphere, with all reaching adult plumage in 3–4 years, though bill color intensity varies, ranging from bright yellow with a red gonydeal spot in the nominate form to duller tones in peripheral populations. The nominate subspecies, L. d. dominicanus, occurs along coastal South America from to , extending to the , , , (including the ); it features a dark slate-gray mantle, one white mirror on the outer primaries, and average male wing length of 416 mm (range 390–464 mm). L. d. austrinus breeds on the and associated subantarctic islands, including the and , and is noted for its larger average male wing length of 431 mm (380–446 mm) and a single white primary mirror. L. d. judithae is restricted to subantarctic islands in the , such as Heard Island, with plumage similar to the nominate but adapted to isolated, harsh conditions; it has limited biometric data but shows minor variations in size. L. d. vetula, commonly known as the Cape Gull, inhabits southwestern from to northeastern , with non-breeding individuals dispersing northward to and occasionally farther; it is the largest , with wing lengths averaging 422 mm (408–440 mm), a paler gray mantle relative to the nominate's darker back, a dark brown iris, and duller yellow bill and greenish legs. L. d. melisandae is restricted to the southwestern and southern coasts of , exhibiting a single white primary mirror and wing lengths averaging 405 mm (396–420 mm), with plumage similar to the nominate but adapted to tropical island conditions. Taxonomic discussions persist regarding L. d. vetula, with proposals to elevate it to full status (Larus vetula) based on , vocal differences, darker iris, more angular skull morphology, and restricted orbital ring coloration that may promote from other ; however, current analyses confirm its subspecific validity pending further molecular studies.

Physical Description

Plumage and Morphology

The adult Kelp Gull displays a striking pied , with black upperwings and mantle contrasting sharply against white underparts, head, neck, and tail; the wingtips feature small white "mirrors." The bill is bright yellow with a prominent red spot on the lower near the tip, the legs and feet are greenish-yellow, and the pale yellow eye is encircled by a vivid . Juvenile Kelp Gulls possess a grey-brown overall plumage densely mottled with whitish edges, a black bill, dull pinkish-grey legs, and a dark subterminal band on the tail. Over 3–4 years, they progressively molt into adult coloration through distinct stages: first-winter birds retain much juvenile patterning with some paler scaling on the back; second-winter individuals show increasing black on the mantle and more yellow on the bill; and third-winter birds approach adult appearance but may retain brownish tones on the wings and head streaking. Key morphological adaptations include fully webbed feet that facilitate swimming and wading in coastal waters, and a robust, slightly hooked bill suited for tearing into prey such as and . shows no , with males and females identical in coloration and pattern. The wings are broad and long, enabling efficient soaring over open oceans and coastal expanses.

Size and Sexual Dimorphism

The Kelp Gull measures 54–65 cm in total length and has a wingspan of 128–142 cm. Adults weigh 540–1,390 g, with males averaging 1,000 g and females 900 g. The species displays moderate sexual size dimorphism, with males larger than females in overall body dimensions and bill measurements but no differences in plumage coloration. This dimorphism facilitates sex determination through external morphometrics, such as wing chord (males 392–448 mm, females 320–428 mm) and bill length (males 49.6–60.0 mm, females 43.6–55.5 mm), though overlap exists. Larger male size provides an advantage in territorial defense during aggressive interactions among gulls. Geographic variation occurs in body size, with populations generally larger; for example, males of the L. d. austrinus ( and nearby islands) average 431 mm in wing length, exceeding the 406 mm mean for L. d. judithae ( subantarctic islands). Chicks reach near-adult structural size by fledging at approximately 7 weeks of age but attain full adult mass during their first year.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The Kelp gull (Larus dominicanus) breeds along coasts and islands across much of the , with its core range encompassing the southern portions of , including from and northward along the Atlantic coast to southern and along the Pacific coast to . This distribution extends to offshore islands such as the and , as well as the . In the southwestern and , breeding occurs from southward to , including and subantarctic islands like the Prince Edward Islands. Further east, populations nest on the coasts of , including , and throughout , as well as on remote subantarctic islands such as . The subspecies L. d. dominicanus predominates in and associated islands, while L. d. vetula is found in . Outside the breeding season, many Kelp gull populations remain largely sedentary, but some undertake post-breeding northward dispersal, with individuals from Patagonian colonies moving as far north as central along the Atlantic coast. In , non-breeding birds range northward to and even to in . Vagrant Kelp gulls occasionally appear well beyond this range, including in , where the first confirmed U.S. record was an adult pair on the , , in 1989, and a notable individual was documented nesting (producing a hybrid chick) in , , in 2025—the state's first record. Vagrants have also reached , including records in the Western Palearctic. The Kelp gull has no established breeding populations in the Northern Hemisphere. Historically, the species underwent range expansion in the mid-20th century, including colonization of the Antarctic Peninsula, facilitated by increased availability of human food waste from scientific research stations, which supported subsequent population growth.

Habitat Preferences

The Kelp Gull (Larus dominicanus) primarily inhabits coastal environments, including rocky and sandy shores, estuaries, sheltered harbors, bays, and offshore islands, where it favors areas with access to . These birds exhibit a strong association with beds along temperate and coastlines, utilizing the nutrient-rich waters for roosting and basic shelter needs. They demonstrate considerable plasticity, occupying both mainland cliffs and isolated islands, with approximately 80% of colonies situated on islands to reduce predation risk. Nesting occurs in shallow ground scrapes constructed from , pebbles, or , typically on bare rock, , mudflats, or pebbly beaches near cliffs, dunes, or low-lying for partial cover. Kelp Gulls preferentially select sites with moderate cover (around 17-21% on average) to balance concealment against visibility for predator detection and escape routes, while avoiding densely vegetated forests or steep slopes greater than 15 degrees that limit accessibility. Inland nesting is rare but documented on flat rocky mountaintops near water bodies in regions like . This microhabitat choice enhances breeding success by mitigating heat stress and predation, with covered nests showing higher chick survival rates compared to exposed ones. The species is well-adapted to temperate and climates across the , tolerating strong winds, salt spray, and variable coastal conditions inherent to its maritime habitats. Its distribution spans from subtropical edges to high-latitude islands like , reflecting resilience to cooler, windy environments without specific thermal limits documented. As human development expands, Kelp Gulls increasingly exploit supplementary urban habitats such as landfills, outfalls, and harbors, where they roost on building roofs and scavenge anthropogenic waste, contributing to population growth in modified landscapes.

Behavior and Ecology

Foraging and Diet

The Kelp gull (Larus dominicanus) exhibits an omnivorous diet, primarily comprising marine prey such as , crustaceans, mollusks, and carrion, alongside terrestrial items including , eggs, and anthropogenic waste. In regions like , the diet encompasses at least 41 prey types, with dominating (73–85% depending on breeding stage and location), complemented by , garbage, and . Pellet analyses in reveal natural marine foods—such as chitons (36% of pellets), (34%), and (11%)—alongside refuse from dumps occurring in 55% of pellets, highlighting heavy reliance on human subsidies. Kelp gulls opportunistically prey on larger marine mammals, including newborn Cape fur seal pups and calves, by rapidly pecking at vulnerable areas like eyes and skin to access soft tissues. Recent studies confirm that such harassment contributes to decreased first-year survival in whale calves due to wound severity (as of 2023). Successful attacks on seal pups last about 2 minutes and often lead to the animal's death, with consuming eyes and further exploiting wounds in the underbelly or ; partial attacks leave seals blinded and prone to repeated predation. On , these pecks create open wounds that penetrate centimeters into the , potentially causing infections such as and contributing to calf mortality through stress, , and impaired . Foraging techniques are diverse and adaptive, including scavenging at landfills and abattoirs for refuse, by stealing prey from like African black oystercatchers after they open mussels, and dropping shellfish such as black mussels from heights of 5–25 meters onto hard surfaces to crack them open. Juveniles often compensate for lower efficiency by extending foraging bouts or relying on , gradually learning advanced techniques through observation of adults at coastal trawlers. Kelp gulls typically forage in flocks during daylight hours, with peak activity coinciding with low tide to exploit exposed intertidal zones for crustaceans and invertebrates. During the breeding season, their diet briefly shifts to incorporate more eggs and chicks near colonies. Incubating adults allocate 10–17% of their day to foraging trips, favoring marine and coastal habitats over highly modified terrestrial sites.

Breeding Biology

The Kelp Gull breeds during the austral spring and summer, with the timing varying by latitude; in temperate regions such as and , the breeding season typically spans September to December, while in and areas, it begins earlier, around August to October. Kelp Gulls form monogamous pairs that often reunite in subsequent seasons and nest colonially, with colonies ranging from a few dozen to over 1,000 pairs at individual sites. Nests consist of shallow ground scrapes or depressions lined with vegetation, grass, seaweed, or moss, typically situated on rocky shores, sandy beaches, or vegetated islands near water. Females lay 2–3 eggs per , which are olive-green to gray-green with dark brown spots and blotches; incubation lasts 24–30 days and is shared by both parents, with the female often taking the majority of the shifts. The chicks are semi-precocial, covered in grayish down with black spots, and remain in the nest or nearby under parental brooding for the first few days before becoming more mobile. Both parents provision the young with regurgitated food, including , , and scavenged items, until fledging at 45–50 days (up to 59 days in populations); post-fledging care continues for several weeks. Chick mortality is high, often 30–50% due primarily to predation by skuas, foxes, or other , as well as weather and starvation. Kelp Gulls have an average lifespan of 15–20 years in the wild, though maximum recorded reaches 27 years; breeding productivity averages 1–2 fledglings per successful nest, with overall success rates of 0.4–0.6 chicks per pair annually depending on site conditions.

Social Interactions and Migration

Kelp Gulls exhibit a highly social lifestyle outside of the breeding season, frequently forming large flocks numbering in the hundreds or more for roosting and at resource-rich sites such as landfills, ports, fish-processing plants, and coastal areas following agricultural or activities. Recent research highlights behavioral adaptations in urban environments, including (aversion to novelty) and exploratory tendencies that influence efficiency, as well as cognitive abilities like learning and (as of 2025). These flocks facilitate communal exploitation of food sources and provide safety in numbers against predators, with birds often displaying coordinated behaviors like synchronized flight during dispersal. Within groups, dominance hierarchies are maintained through aggressive interactions, including chases and supplanting postures, allowing dominant individuals priority access to prime spots. The species employs a diverse of vocalizations to communicate within flocks and during interactions. Common calls include a repeated "ee-ah" and raucous yelping sounds, with the long call resembling that of the (Larus smithsonianus) but delivered at a faster for territorial advertisement and pair maintenance. Alarm calls consist of harsh, repetitive "ee-ah-ha-ha-ha" series used to warn flockmates of threats, while softer mewing notes serve for contact and affiliation among group members. These vocal signals play a key role in coordinating group movements and defending shared roosting areas. Although largely sedentary, Kelp Gulls show post-breeding dispersal patterns influenced by food availability and age. Adults typically remain within 30 km of their breeding sites, with most resightings occurring close to natal colonies, but juveniles disperse farther, often traveling distances of 22–136 km and up to 935 km along coastlines in search of fisheries or waste resources. Some southern populations, particularly in and , undertake northward migrations after breeding, covering several hundred kilometers, while Australian birds occasionally move southward to . Kelp Gulls engage in aggressive interspecies interactions, frequently kleptoparasitizing food from other seabirds such as terns, , and smaller gulls through pursuit and intimidation. In vagrant occurrences in the , rare hybridization with Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus) has been documented, producing viable offspring in areas like the Gulf Coast of the and the . These interactions underscore the species' opportunistic and dominant role in mixed assemblages.

Human Interactions and Conservation

Relationship with Humans

The Kelp Gull (Larus dominicanus) plays a beneficial role in human-modified environments by scavenging organic waste, thereby helping to reduce refuse accumulation at ports, harbors, and landfills. In , breeding Kelp Gulls frequently forage at rubbish dumps and croplands, consuming discarded materials that would otherwise contribute to environmental buildup. Similarly, in , these gulls exploit rubbish tips as a key food source, correlating their numbers with nearby human populations served by such sites. Additionally, as opportunistic seabirds that accumulate trace elements from marine contaminants, Kelp Gulls serve as bioindicators for levels in coastal ecosystems. Studies of their feathers have revealed intraspecific variations in metal concentrations, highlighting their utility in monitoring anthropogenic from activities like burning and oil spills. Eggs and tissues of the species have also been analyzed as indicators of environmental chemicals in regions like the Magellan Strait. Despite these benefits, Kelp Gulls often conflict with human activities, particularly in urban and coastal settings where they become nuisances by scavenging from bins and begging or stealing food. In , they are commonly regarded as pests at picnic areas, restaurants, and beaches due to their bold approach to human food sources. In Patagonia, , their opportunistic feeding extends to on fishery discards from trawl vessels, disrupting operations by stealing bait and catches. Further conflicts arise from predatory behaviors, such as attacks on juvenile Cape fur seals in and , where target eyes and wounds, exacerbating injuries in seal pups. In Patagonia, similar harassment targets calves, with pecking at skin and during surfacing, leading to widespread lesions. Kelp Gulls hold cultural significance in indigenous traditions, particularly among in , where the bird (known as karoro) symbolizes the sea and evokes omens; sightings inland were traditionally viewed as bad portents for those tied to coastal life. historically kept karoro as companion animals or pets, integrating them into daily narratives alongside other birds. In modern contexts, vagrant Kelp Gull sightings outside their range attract birdwatchers, as seen in rare North American records like the first individual in 2025, drawing enthusiasts from across the continent, and a 2022 appearance in Texas's Rio Grande Valley. Historically, the species was first formally described as Larus dominicanus by Martin Lichtenstein in 1823, based on specimens from southern . Its range has expanded since the early 1900s, facilitated by human-altered landscapes providing reliable food subsidies like refuse dumps, enabling colonization of inland and urban areas previously unsuitable.

Conservation Status and Threats

The Kelp Gull (Larus dominicanus) is classified as Least Concern on the , with the most recent assessment conducted in 2018. This status reflects its large global population, estimated at 3.3–4.3 million individuals, which is considered stable to increasing overall due to the species' adaptability to human-modified environments. Despite this, regional variations exist, with expansions in urban and coastal areas driven by access to anthropogenic food sources, such as waste from fisheries and landfills. For instance, in northern , , the breeding population grew by 37% between the 1980s and early 2000s, rising from approximately 52,784 to 72,616 pairs across monitored colonies. Conversely, declines have been noted in isolated island populations, such as those off South Africa's west coast, where numbers decreased due to predation by great white pelicans. Key threats to the Kelp Gull include habitat loss from coastal development, which fragments breeding sites and increases exposure to human disturbance. poses additional risks, particularly oil spills that contaminate feathers and eggs, leading to reduced reproductive success; notable incidents, such as the 2018 spill in the , affected individual birds directly. Recent outbreaks of highly pathogenic (HPAI H5N1) have caused mortality in kelp gulls in and sub-Antarctic regions as of 2025. Persecution as a pest species occurs in areas where the gulls harass marine mammals, including southern right whales (Eubalaena australis), prompting efforts in Argentina's Península Valdés to mitigate impacts on whale calves. further endangers subantarctic breeding populations by altering food availability and glacier retreat patterns, potentially expanding some habitats while disrupting others through shifting prey dynamics. Conservation measures focus on habitat protection and monitoring to address these localized threats. The species is safeguarded in several Antarctic Specially Protected Areas under the , where breeding colonies on the benefit from restricted human access. In and , ongoing monitoring programs track population trends and interactions with , such as whale harassment studies , informing targeted management like nest deterrents to reduce conflicts without broad-scale . These efforts emphasize the Kelp Gull's role in coastal ecosystems while balancing its pest status in human-dominated areas.

References

  1. https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/animals/flying-birds/kelp-gull/
  2. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/kelp-gull-larus-dominicanus
  3. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/kelgul/cur/introduction
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  5. https://www.timaru.govt.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/260174/Draft-SBBG-Strategy_Oct.pdf
  6. https://www.fws.gov/taxonomic-tree/1684541
  7. https://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCprop250.htm
  8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7692222_Phylogenetic_relationships_within_the_Laridae_Charadriiformes_Aves_inferred_from_mitochondrial_markers
  9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232898418_A_Revision_of_the_Lari_Aves_Charadriiformes_from_the_Early_Miocene_of_Saint-Gerand-Le-Puy_Allier_France
  10. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303947922_Evolutionary_history_of_the_Kelp_Gull_Larus_dominicanus_in_the_southern_hemisphere_supported_by_multilocus_evidence
  11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286297730_Taxonomy_of_the_Kelp_Gull_Larus_dominicanus_Lichtenstein_Revisited_with_Sex-Separated_Analyses_of_Biometrics_and_Wing_Tip_Patterns
  12. https://zoolstud.sinica.edu.tw/Journals/51.6/881.pdf
  13. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=E6536E4E904EF414
  14. https://www.oiseaux.net/birds/kelp.gull.html
  15. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=6062B689F9D76F69
  16. https://ebird.org/species/kelgul
  17. https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/kelp-gull
  18. https://thebdi.org/2023/04/21/kelp-gull-larus-dominicanus/
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  20. https://mdahlem.net/birds/10/kelpgull.php
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  22. https://absa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Kelp-Gull.pdf
  23. https://braidedrivers.org/wp-content/uploads/Karoro-movement-report-ECan-2023.pdf
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  25. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229753871_On_the_function_of_territory_in_gulls
  26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26428200
  27. http://www.losbird.org/lbrc/kegu.html
  28. https://ebird.org/atlaswi/news/kelp-gull-nesting-in-wisconsin-viewing-information
  29. http://avesmarinhas.com.br/8%2520-%2520Trophic%2520relationships%2520kelp%2520gull%2520and%2520the%2520Antarctic%2520limpet.pdf
  30. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289445480_Habitat_Requirements_and_Selection_by_Kelp_Gulls_Larus_Dominicanus_in_Central_and_Northern_Patagonia_Argentina
  31. https://doi.org/10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0243:HRASBK]2.0.CO;2
  32. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1299&context=marine_ornithology
  33. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=14145&context=condor
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