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30°14′2″N 120°8′42″E / 30.23389°N 120.14500°E / 30.23389; 120.14500

Leifeng Pagoda
Aerial view of Leifeng Pagoda
Chinese雷峰塔
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinLéifēng Tǎ
Leifeng Pagoda
Close-up of the pagoda
Plan of Leifeng Pagoda
Full View of Site of Leifeng Pagoda
Model of the Underground Palace of Leifeng Pagoda
Original pagoda in 1910 before the collapse in 1924
The New Leifeng Pagoda
Map of the West Lake with the location of Leifeng Pagoda
Leifeng Pagoda at night

The Leifeng Pagoda is a five-story, eight-sided tower located on Sunset Hill south of West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China. Originally constructed in the year AD 975, it collapsed in 1924 but was rebuilt in 2002. Since then, it has become a popular tourist attraction. A view of the original pagoda at dusk was one of the famous Ten Scenes of West Lake and it was notable for featuring as a location in the Legend of the White Snake.

History

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Original

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The original pagoda was built in 975 AD, during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, at the order of King Zhongyi (Qian Chu) of Wuyue for his favorite concubine, Consort Huang. The Leifeng Pagoda was an octagonal,[1] five-story structure built of brick and wood with a base built of bricks.

During the Ming dynasty, Japanese pirates attacked Hangzhou. Suspecting the pagoda contained weapons, they burned its wooden elements, leaving only the brick skeleton, which can be seen from Ming paintings of the West Lake.[2]

Leifeng Pagoda was one of the ten sights of the West Lake because of the Legend of the White Snake.[3] In the Chinese folk story "The Legend of White Snake",[4] the monk Fahai deceived Xu Xian to Jinshan Temple, and the White Lady ran into Jinshan to rescue Xu Xian, and was suppressed by Fahai under the Leifeng Pagoda.[5]

Later, due to a superstition that the bricks from the tower could repel illness or prevent miscarriage, many people stole bricks from the tower to grind into powder. On the afternoon of September 25, 1924, the pagoda finally collapsed due to disrepair.[6] At that time Lu Xun wrote two articles commenting on this event, using the pagoda to symbolize the collapse of pedantic traditional Chinese thoughts and expressing his hope for the future society.[7][8] Xu Zhimo and Yu Pingbo also wrote poems and articles to commemorate the pagoda.[9]

Reconstruction

[edit]

In the 13th year of the Republic of China (1924), the brick tower of the Leifeng Pagoda fell into disrepair on 25 September and only the ruins remain.[6]

In October 1999, the provincial and municipal governments decided to rebuild Leifeng Pagoda on top of the ruins of the old one. The new pagoda opened on 25 October 2002. It is composed of a 1400 tonne steel structure with 200 tonnes of copper parts. It contains four sightseeing elevators, and modern amenities such as air conditioning, television, and speakers. At the entrance of the pagoda, there are two autonomous escalators to carry visitors to the base of the pagoda.[10]

The original base of the pagoda is kept in good condition, as well as the artifacts discovered in the underground chamber.

Historical development

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In the second year of Taiping Xingguo era of the Northern Song Dynasty (977 AD),[11] the king of Wu Yue, Qian Chu, built a 7-storey tower named Huangfei[12] Pagoda to offer Buddha's relics and pray for national peace and prosperity. Later, it was renamed as Leifeng Pagoda due to its location on Leifeng (Xizhao Mountain).

In the second year of Xuanhe in the Northern Song Dynasty (1120 AD),Leifeng Pagoda was destroyed by war and fire.

In the seventh year of the Qianlong era of the Southern Song Dynasty (1171), Master Zhiyou of Buddhism initiated the renovation of Leifeng Pagoda, only renovation to five floors.[13]

During the Ming Jiajing period, the wooden eaves of the Leifeng Pagoda were destroyed by war, leaving only the reddish-brown brick tower core.[14]

In the early Qing Dynasty, the Lei Feng Pagoda was still a reddish-brown brick tower. During his southern tour, Emperor Kangxi gave the name"Lei Feng Evening Glow"[15][16] to it.

In the late Qing Dynasty, the Lei Feng Pagoda had fallen into disrepair due to its age, and the ignorant people had stolen bricks, weakening the foundation of the tower.[14]

On September 25, 1924, in the thirteenth year of the Republic of China, the Lei Feng Pagoda collapsed due to excessive brick theft and excavation, as well as nearby construction work causing vibrations at the site.[17]

In the year 1935, the Chinese architect Liang Sicheng put forward the idea of rebuilding the Leifeng Pagoda and suggested restoring it to its original state.[14]

In May 1983, China's State Council approved the plan for the reconstruction of the Leifeng Pagoda project in the Hangzhou City Master Plan.[14]

In 1988, Zhejiang Travel Future Research Association, Hangzhou Tourism Economics Association, Hangzhou Garden Society, Hangzhou Buddhist Association, Lingyin Temple, Zhejiang Overseas Chinese Association, Hangzhou Overseas Chinese Association, Overseas Chinese Hotel, Qianjiang Evening News, Jiangnan Travel Newspaper, etc. jointly initiated to organize the Leifeng Pagoda Reconstruction Promotion Association in the form of a civil organization and drafted the reconstruction of the origin, but due to many reasons still could not be put into practice.[14]

In July 1999, the Zhejiang Provincial Government and Hangzhou Municipal Government approved the reconstruction of Leifeng Pagoda to be officially included in the agenda.[18]

On December 16, 2000, the reconstruction project of Leifeng Pagoda was officially opened.[19]

On October 25, 2002, the reconstruction of Leifeng Pagoda was completed and officially opened to the public.[20]

Architectural pattern

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Leifeng Pagoda in the Southern Song Dynasty by Li Song
Scenic Attractions of West Lake 30
Leifeng Pagoda in the Ming Dynasty by Zhou Long
Leifeng Pagoda in the Sunset taken by Erwoxuan Photo Studio, 1911
Rebuilt Leifeng Pagoda in the early 21st century

Overview

Leifeng Pagoda was originally a brick-wood structured tower in the style of a pavilion-like tower, with a wooden eave gallery (subsidiary steps, waist eave, flat seat, railing, etc.) outside and a brick tower body inside that can be climbed. There are stone carvings of the "Avatamsaka Sutra" on the tower wall. According to photos taken during the period of the Republic of China, the height of the original tower's bottom layer was about 12 meters, and the height of each of the other layers was about 8 meters, for a total height of about 50 meters. The pagoda top still has a cylindrical brick-paved stupa base.[10]

Stylobate

From 2000 to 2001, the Zhejiang Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology conducted a clearance and excavation of the Leifeng Pagoda site. The identified remains of the site mainly include the tower foundation, underground palace, remaining tower body, and some peripheral buildings (such as monk rooms and roads). The tower foundation and tower body are both equilateral octagons. The tower foundation is a natural hill platform with brick and stone on the outer edge, which was flattened and modified. Each side is 17 meters long and the diagonal is 41 meters, with a height of 1.2-2.5 meters above the ground.[21]

The base of the pagoda is built with stone-made Sumeru pedestal. As the terrain is higher in the west and lower in the east, a double-layered Sumeru pedestal is used on the eastern side, while a single-layered one is adopted on the western side. Carvings of Sumeru Mountain and the sea waves, symbolic of Buddhism's "Nine Mountains and Eight Seas," can be seen on the eastern pedestal, while an overturned lotus is carved on the western pedestal. A secondary platform runs between the outer edge of the pagoda base and the Sumeru pedestal. Judging from the 24 pieces of limestone square column tops excavated from the outer edge of the pagoda base, each face of the original secondary platform had four columns and three bays, with a width of about 5 meters for both the primary and secondary bays, and a depth of about 5.8 meters.[21]

Only the lowest level of the tower remains, with an average height of 3–5 meters. It has a sleeve-corridor structure, with the outer sleeve, corridor, inner sleeve, and core chamber arranged from outer to inner, similar to the Tiger Hill Pagoda in Suzhou and the Liuhe Pagoda in Hangzhou. This is a typical Buddhist tower style from the late Wu and Yue dynasties. The outer sleeve has a length of 10 meters and a diameter of 25 meters, making it the largest existing tower among the Five Dynasties. It is 4.2 meters deep and has a door on each side. The staircase to climb the tower is located inside the southern gate. The corridor is 1.8-2.3 meters wide, and the inner sleeve is 3.7 meters deep with doors at intervals, leading to the core chamber. The tower is entirely made of bricks with yellow mud used to join them. The bricks are rectangular, usually 37 cm long, 18 cm wide, and 6 cm thick, with inscriptions related to their origin and age on one side. Some bricks are scripture bricks, with a circular hole 2.5 cm in diameter and 10 cm deep used for storing scripture scrolls on one end.[21]

The newly reconstructed Lei Feng Pagoda is located on the original site, and was designed by Guo Daiheng and Lv Zhou of the School of Architecture at Tsinghua University. The pagoda is built in the style and scale of the Southern Song Dynasty, and remains a five-story octagonal tower. However, it features a steel frame structure, with the main structural components such as pillars, brackets, and tiles made of copper. The new pagoda consists of three parts: a protective cover, the pagoda body, and the spire. It stands at a height of 71.679 meters, with the protective cover standing 9.7 meters high and consisting of two layers of inclined steel pillars and horizontal steel beams, forming a column-free space with a span of 48 meters that covers the original site and supports the upper pagoda body. The pagoda body is approximately 45 meters high and consists of five stories, with two hydraulic elevators and steel stairs inside. The spire is 16.1 meters high. The newly Leifeng Pagoda has become the highest point of the south line of West Lake and offers a panoramic view of the lake from its top.[22]

Pagoda body

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First Floor

The main entrance of Leifeng Pagoda features a golden plaque inscribed with the character "Leifeng Pagoda" by the calligrapher Qigong. The ground is paved with glass and beneath it lies the protective layer of the Leifeng Pagoda site (i.e. the foundation).[23]

Hidden Floor

The hidden floor of Leifeng Pagoda is decorated with intricate carvings in the form of Dongyang woodcarvings depicting the love story of Bai Niangzi and Xu Xian in the legend of "The Legend of the White Snake". The carvings utilize five different techniques, including round carving, semi-round carving, high relief, deep relief, and shallow relief, which are combined in a form called "overlay carving" to enhance the storytelling and character portrayal of the legend.[23]

Second Floor

The cultural display on the second floor of Leifeng Pagoda mainly has the "Wuyue Building Tower Picture".[23]

Third Floor

The third floor of Leifeng Pagoda features four pieces of inscribed poetry, each with three poems, for a total of 12 selected from excellent poetic works describing Leifeng Pagoda and the "Leifeng Sunset" from different eras. They are accompanied by illustrations of scenery and characters.[23]

Fourth Floor

The interior of the fourth floor of Leifeng Pagoda features a display of Oushe sculptures depicting the specific locations of the ten scenic spots of West Lake, collectively known as the "New Face of West Lake".[23]

Fifth Floor

The fifth floor of Leifeng Pagoda boasts a golden dome made of exquisite gold-plating art, featuring a large lotus flower in the center as a symbol of purity and a wish for world peace. Above the dome is a secret chamber that houses a replica of the Heavenly Palace, along with items and inscriptions passed down to future generations, such as the reconstruction of the Leifeng Sunset and a model of the new Leifeng Pagoda. The walls are filled with small Buddha niches, each containing a mini golden leifeng pagoda, totaling 2002, representing and commemorating the reconstruction of Leifeng Pagoda in 2002 A.D.[23]

Culture

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The collapse of the Leifeng Pagoda coincided with China's new cultural movement, and Lu Xun published On the Fall of the Leifeng Pagoda and On the Fall of the Leifeng Pagoda Again, arguing that it represented the old feudal system and feudal morality and that its collapse was a historical necessity, and expressing his desire for a new social construction and renewal in the future. Xu Zhimo and Yu Pingbo, on the other hand, composed poems and essays expressing their regret from a historical and cultural perspective respectively.[24] Eileen Chang's 1963 autobiographical novel in English, The Fall of the Pagoda (also translated as Leifeng Pagoda), is similar to Lu Xun in that it also represents the fall of Leifeng Pagoda as the collapse of the traditional Chinese society's way of life and old values.[25]

Excavated objects

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The Ashoka Pagoda in gilt and sterling silver, a national relic
Silver Ashoka Pagoda
Gilt-bronze statue of Shakyamuni Buddha speaking, a national relic
Jade standing statue of the Boy of Good Fortune, a national relic
A gilt silver box inscribed "Long Live the Thousand Years", a national relic
A gilt-silver girdle with parrot motif, a national relic
Engraved Sutra Scroll of the Secret Body Sutra of the Heart of the Buddha, National Heritage

During excavations between 2000 and 2001, archaeologists unearthed a large number of artifacts from the tower site and the underground palace respectively, most of which are now collected and exhibited in the Zhejiang Provincial Museum.[26]

A total of 1104 stone carvings were unearthed from other parts of the site besides the underground palace, all of them fragments, most of them on the ground floor corridor and in the doorways, mainly the Sutra of the Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra (nearly 1000 pieces) and the Diamond Sutra (nearly 100 pieces), which were originally placed on the outer wall of the outer sleeve, as well as the Sutra of the Huayan Sutra by Qian Biao and the Sutra of the Southern Song Dynasty (1199) in the fifth year of the Qing Yuan period. The two fragmentary stelae, the "Record of the Creation of the Qing Yuan Repair", are of great value in interpreting the life of the Leifeng Pagoda. In addition, there is one pure silver Ashoka pagoda (fragmentary when excavated, later restored from a gilt pure silver Ashoka pagoda excavated from the underground palace) and one bronze Ashoka pagoda (fragmentary), one small stone pagoda, seven gilt bronze statues, one iron statue, ten stone statues (fragmentary), a large number of pagoda bricks and decorative elements, one plain bronze mirror, one iron mirror, two bronze cymbals, one bronze lantern, two silver ornaments, and 100 The Kaiyuan Tongbao and 10 Qianyuan Chongbao.[10]

Fifty-one groups of artefacts were excavated from the underground palace in the pagoda. These include one iron relic letter, one gilt sterling silver ayurveda, one gilt silver box, one pair of mandarin duck and lotus leaf motif openwork silver ornaments, one round openwork silver ornament, three silver armlets, one silver flower hairpin, one pair of small silver ornaments, five gilt bronze Buddha statues, one jade boy, one jade guanyin, one jade coin, one jade tortoise, one onyx pendant, one onyx round bead, one gilt wood stand, one lacquer bracelet, ten bronze mirror, 1 glass vase, 1 beaded necklace and 3 sutra scrolls (mutilated). In addition to these, 3428 coins were found in the palace, dating from the fifth year of Emperor Wen of the Western Han Dynasty (175 BC) to the first year of the Song Emperor Jianlong (960).[10]

The former was placed in the earthly palace and contained a gold vessel wrapped in a thin gold sheet in the form of a coffin, the details of which are unknown as it was not opened, and was believed to contain the relics of the Buddha's bun hair; the latter is thought to have been placed in the heavenly palace and a gourd-shaped gold vase, which also contained the relics, was suspended inside the tower.[10][27]

Visit information

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Location

Leifeng Pagoda is located at No. 15 Nanshan Road, Xihu District, Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province,China[20]

Ticket price

40 yuan/person[28]

Transportation

Subway

Take the Hangzhou subway line 7 to Wushan Square Station, and then walk to the destination.[29]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Leifeng Pagoda

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Leifeng Pagoda is a multi-tiered Buddhist tower perched on Xizi Hill overlooking the southern shore of in , Province, . Originally constructed in 975 CE by Qian Chu, king of the Kingdom, as a brick-and-wood structure to enshrine Buddhist relics, the pagoda endured for nearly a millennium before collapsing in 1924 owing to structural decay and lack of maintenance. Archaeological investigations at the site post-collapse unearthed an underground palace containing over 100,000 printed Buddhist pages on wooden slips, miniature pagodas, and other artifacts dating from the period, confirming the pagoda's role in preserving religious texts and objects. The modern reconstruction, completed in 2002, incorporates steel framing within a facade replicating the original octagonal design while allowing public access to subterranean exhibits of these findings, thereby restoring its prominence in the scenic area.

Location and Background

Geographical Setting

Leifeng Pagoda is located on Sunset Hill, directly south of in , Province, . The site occupies Leifeng Peak, a modest rising from the lake's southern shore, providing elevated vistas northward over the lake's expanse. The pagoda's coordinates are approximately 30°14′02″N 120°08′13″E, placing it within the urban core of , amid a of hills, water bodies, and historical sites. itself is a shallow freshwater lake covering about 6.39 square kilometers, formed by natural and engineered damming, with Leifeng Pagoda forming a key southern landmark opposite northern structures like Baochu Pagoda. This positioning integrates the pagoda into the broader scenic area, characterized by topography remnants and subtropical vegetation.

Etymology and Naming

The Leifeng , originally constructed in 975 AD by King Qian Chu (錢俶) of the Wuyue Kingdom, bore the initial name Huangfei Ta (黃妃塔), or Pagoda of Consort Huang, to honor the birth of his son to his favored concubine, Huangfei. Historical records also refer to it as Wangfei Ta (王妃塔, Pagoda of the Royal Consort) or Huangpi Ta (黄皮塔, Yellow-Skinned Pagoda), reflecting variations in denoting the consort's status or the pagoda's brick exterior. The designation Leifeng Ta (雷峰塔, Thunder Peak Pagoda) emerged from its placement atop Leifeng Peak on Sunset Hill (夕照山), south of in , with the name conventionally applying the local topographic feature to the structure. The peak's name, Leifeng (雷峰), traces to a historical account in the Chunyou Lin'an Zhi (淳祐臨安志) of a resident named Lei Ju (雷就) who erected a hermitage there, or alternatively to a paleographic confusion with Huifeng (回峰 or 中峰), where the archaic form of "hui" (回) resembled "lei" (雷), leading to later misrendering. This locational naming solidified by the , associating the pagoda with the scenic vista of Leifeng Xizhao (雷峰夕照, Thunder Peak Sunset Glow), one of 's traditional ten views.

Historical Timeline

Original Construction (975 AD)

The Leifeng Pagoda was constructed in 975 AD during the final years of the Kingdom, a semi-independent state in southeastern that flourished from 907 to 978 with its capital at . Commissioned by King Qian Chu (also known as Qian Hongchu or Zhongyi Wang, reigned 948–978), the last ruler of Wuyue, the pagoda served to commemorate the birth of a son to his favored concubine, Huangfei. This act aligned with the dynasty's tradition of royal patronage for , as Wuyue kings erected multiple pagodas in the region to promote and legitimize their rule. Erected on the southern slopes of Xizi (Thunder Peak) Hill overlooking , the original structure was an octagonal built primarily of , a durable material chosen for longevity in the humid climate. Historical records indicate it featured five visible stories, with internal stairways and possibly additional buried levels, typical of Tang-Song era pagodas designed to house Buddhist sutras or relics. The construction reflected advanced engineering of the period, including a solid foundation to stabilize the hilltop site against erosion and seismic activity. The pagoda's erection occurred amid political tensions, as faced pressure from the rising , prompting Qian Chu's efforts to bolster cultural and religious landmarks. Unlike contemporaneous wooden pagodas, Leifeng's brick composition contributed to its through initial centuries, though it was not immune to later damages. Primary sources from the era, such as dynastic annals, underscore the project's scale, involving local labor and materials sourced from nearby quarries, emblematic of 's economic prosperity from and .

Repairs, Damages, and Decline (10th–19th Centuries)

In 1120, during the second year of the Xuanhe era of the , Leifeng Pagoda sustained severe damage from warfare, including conflicts involving peasant insurgents that also destroyed the affiliated monastery. The structure was subsequently repaired between 1195 and 1200, during the era of the , restoring its architectural features and embellishments to a state of renewed prominence as part of the scenic views. During the Ming Dynasty's Jiajing era (1522–1567), specifically in 1555 amid invasions by Japanese wokou pirates besieging , the pagoda's wooden eaves and external structures were incinerated, leaving only the inner core intact. No comprehensive reconstruction followed this incident, marking the onset of prolonged structural vulnerability. By the (1644–1911), the pagoda entered a phase of neglect without significant repairs, exacerbated by local superstitions attributing curative properties—such as warding off illness or aiding male births—to its bricks, prompting residents to systematically remove them for personal use. This erosion, combined with exposure to and absence of maintenance, accelerated the tower's decline, reducing it to a dilapidated shell by the late .

Destruction in 1924

By the early , the Leifeng Pagoda had deteriorated significantly due to centuries of neglect, prior damages from fires and invasions, and repeated strikes. Superstitious individuals frequently removed bricks from the pagoda's base, convinced that these held supernatural powers to avert illness and evil spirits, which progressively undermined the structure's . On the afternoon of September 25, 1924, the remaining brick core of the five-story octagonal pagoda collapsed suddenly without external intervention, leaving only rubble atop Leifeng Peak overlooking . The wooden elements had long since burned away in earlier incidents, exposing the core to further . While the surface collapse marked the end of the visible structure, the subterranean foundation and artifacts remained buried and undamaged until later excavations. The event drew contemporary commentary, notably from writer , who interpreted the pagoda's fall as symbolic of the crumbling feudal traditions in Republican-era , though this was a metaphorical rather than . No immediate rebuilding efforts followed, and the site lay in ruins for decades, reflecting broader instability during the .

Reconstruction in 2002

The reconstruction of Leifeng Pagoda commenced with the foundation laying on December 26, 2000, after archaeological surveys confirmed the site's stability and preserved the underlying relics from prior excavations. The project was initiated to revive the pagoda's silhouette on the southern shore of , which had been absent since its collapse on September 5, 1924, due to structural deterioration from and prior damages. Local authorities in , under Province oversight, oversaw the effort to integrate restoration with development, ensuring the new structure stood at approximately 48 meters tall, matching the original's scale. Construction concluded on October 25, 2002, yielding a seven-story octagonal externally resembling its 10th-century Kingdom predecessor, though built with a modern steel skeleton encased in traditional for authenticity. Internal features included elevators for across the multi-level interior and systems to accommodate visitors, diverging from historical designs that lacked such amenities. A transparent at the base level was incorporated, enabling direct observation of the subterranean palace and unearthed artifacts, such as and Buddhist relics, without excavation disruption. The rebuilt pagoda prioritized seismic resilience and fireproofing, employing contemporary materials beneath the facade to withstand environmental stresses that felled the original, while preserving aesthetic to illustrations and remnants. This approach balanced empirical preservation needs with visual restoration, though critics later noted the structure's primary role as a vantage point for views rather than a functional Buddhist tower. Upon opening, it rapidly drew crowds, affirming the reconstruction's success in revitalizing the site's cultural and scenic value.

Architectural Features

Original Design and Materials

The original Leifeng Pagoda, erected in 975 AD during the Kingdom, featured an octagonal base and a five-story pavilion-style design typical of Tang-Song era . The structure adopted a multi-eaved form with interior corridors, reflecting the era's emphasis on symbolic height and relic veneration rather than functional climbing. Construction utilized brick as the primary material for the sturdy core, base, and exterior walls, providing durability against seismic activity common in the region, while wooden elements formed the eaves, balconies, pillars, and railings to allow for ornate detailing and flexibility. This brick-wood hybrid, known as a "brick pagoda with wooden attachments," balanced permanence with aesthetic elaboration, as evidenced by archaeological remnants of the base showing interlocking brick patterns without mortar in some sections. The design incorporated an underground palace beneath the base for enshrining relics, constructed with stone and sealed mechanisms to protect contents like miniature pagodas and sutra models.

Modern Reconstruction Differences

The 2002 reconstruction of Leifeng Pagoda was designed primarily to preserve the archaeological ruins of the original structure and maintain its silhouette in the landscape, rather than to replicate the historical building authentically. Unlike the original, which featured a seven-story octagonal core with exterior corridors and wooden elements vulnerable to decay and , the modern version employs a weighing 1,400 tons, reinforced with for seismic stability, and is clad externally in silver-gray and white totaling over 330 tons. This shift from traditional masonry to contemporary engineering materials prioritizes durability against environmental factors, contrasting with the original's reliance on and that contributed to its gradual by 1924. Internally, the reconstruction diverges markedly to accommodate and artifact display. The pagoda's base includes two subterranean levels housing the excavated and an underground palace with relics such as statues and Buddhist scriptures, accessible via modern pathways. Above ground, it presents as a five-story body atop an octagonal foundation with railings, equipped with elevators, staircases, and exhibition halls on the lower floors showcasing unearthed artifacts, features absent in the original's more austere, relic-focused interior without public access infrastructure. The total height reaches 71.3 meters, aligning visually with historical depictions to preserve scenic views, but the core structure lacks the original's load-bearing brick masonry, instead using and elements for support. These adaptations reflect a protective rather than restorative approach, as confirmed by UNESCO documentation emphasizing ruin safeguarding over historical fidelity. Critics note that while the exterior mimics Southern aesthetics in scale and form, the internal modernity— including reinforced foundations and non-traditional claddings—renders it a contemporary rather than a precise revival, potentially altering interpretations of its cultural authenticity.

Archaeological Excavations

2001 Discoveries

In early 2001, archaeologists from the Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and excavated the underground palace of Leifeng Pagoda, located 2.6 meters below the structure's foundation on Leifeng Hill near in , Province. The team lifted a 750 kg stone tablet to access an undisturbed cellar measuring less than one cubic meter, revealing approximately 40 precious relics preserved from the pagoda's original 10th-century construction. Among the discoveries was a rusty iron casket, approximately 30 cm wide and 45 cm high, believed to contain a strand of Sakyamuni Buddha's hair, as corroborated by inscriptions on the overlying stone tablet. Additional artifacts included a gilded bronze statue of the Buddha seated on a lotus base adorned with a rising dragon, symbolizing the integration of Chinese and Indian Buddhist artistic traditions; remnants of a stone sitting Buddha figure; several Song Dynasty copper mirrors; dozens of bronze coins; and items crafted from silk, jade, and leather. Bricks inscribed with cyclical dates "Xinwei" (AD 971) and "Renshen" (AD 972) confirmed the pagoda's building period during the Wuyue Kingdom. These findings, ranked among China's top archaeological discoveries of , offered direct evidence of the pagoda's original architectural and religious functions, including the deposition of sacred relics in its base, and highlighted the site's protection from despite the 1924 collapse. The relics were transferred to the Zhejiang Provincial Museum for preservation and study, underscoring their value in illuminating Northern Buddhist practices.

Analysis of Artifacts

The 2001 excavations at the Leifeng Pagoda site uncovered over 50 artifacts from the undisturbed underground palace, primarily consisting of nested reliquaries, gilded bronze Buddhist statues, and iron containers, which had been sealed since the pagoda's original construction in 975 AD. These items, including an iron box speculated to contain a strand of Buddha's hair and eight additional reliquaries, indicate the pagoda's foundational purpose as a stupa for enshrining Buddhist sarira or symbolic relics, a common practice in Tang-Song era Chinese Buddhism to ensure spiritual protection. The pristine condition of the finds, protected by the sealed chamber approximately 2.6 meters below the foundation, allowed for detailed material analysis revealing high-purity alloys and gilding techniques consistent with Wuyue Kingdom metallurgy. Among the artifacts were woodblock-printed Buddhist sutras and scriptures, representing early examples of Chinese printing technology from the Five Dynasties period, with inscriptions dating to the that corroborate historical records of donations by ruler Qian Hongchu. Over 1,100 stone fragments bearing engraved texts and motifs were also recovered from the surrounding foundation, providing epigraphic evidence of the pagoda's repairs and expansions through the and Ming dynasties, including details on structural reinforcements using brick and lime mortar. Analysis of these stones via inscription dating and stylistic comparison confirms multiple phases of , countering earlier assumptions of continuous decay and highlighting adaptive against seismic activity in the . Certain sculptures and motifs among the relics exhibit stylistic elements blending Central Asian influences—such as Gandharan on figures—with indigenous Chinese forms, underscoring the Wuyue era's role as a conduit for Silk Road cultural exchanges into southeastern . Coins and miniature pagoda models found in the deposits further attest to depositions during construction, with metallurgical testing showing silver content in bronzes indicative of royal patronage and resource access. Collectively, the artifacts refute notions of the pagoda as merely ornamental, affirming its causal function in relic and regional , while their analysis via non-destructive has yielded data on patterns from long-term burial, informing preservation strategies for similar sites.

Cultural and Legendary Role

Buddhist Significance

Leifeng Pagoda was erected between 971 and 977 CE under the auspices of Qian Chu, the last king of the Kingdom, primarily as a for sacred Buddhist artifacts. The structure housed relics attributed to the historical Śākyamuni, including locks of the Buddha's hair (known as Fo luokuo fa 佛螺髺髮) enshrined in an underground chamber beneath the pagoda. This purpose aligned with the rulers' extensive patronage of , which included the production and distribution of printed and the construction of multiple pagodas to enshrine relics. The pagoda's design incorporated elements symbolic of and ritual function. Hollow bricks within its body contained printed scrolls of the Dhāranī Sūtra of the Buddha's Crown (Buddha-crown dhāraṇī), a protective incantation text believed to invoke divine safeguarding. Inner walls featured stones inscribed with the (Avataṃsaka Sūtra), emphasizing interconnectedness and enlightenment hierarchies central to . Additionally, sixteen sculptures of arhats—guardian figures—adorned the structure, underscoring its role in warding off malevolent forces and facilitating meritorious accumulation for devotees. Archaeological findings from the site confirm the pagoda's enduring religious import, revealing artifacts such as a silver Asoka pagoda model, a gold-and-copper Śākyamuni statue, and Buddhist scripture rubbings, which attest to its function as a repository of tangible links to Buddhist sanctity. In the broader context of , Leifeng Pagoda exemplified the adaptation of the Indian stūpa as a commemorative , serving not only to preserve relics but also to mark auspicious sites conducive to and karmic benefit.

Association with White Snake Legend

The Leifeng Pagoda figures centrally in the Chinese folktale Legend of the White Snake (Bái Shé Zhuàn, 白蛇传), a romance between the snake spirit Bai Suzhen (White Lady) and the mortal herbalist Xu Xian, thwarted by the antagonistic monk Fahai. After Bai Suzhen reveals her true nature during pregnancy and Fahai deems her a demonic threat, he captures her and seals her beneath the pagoda's foundation using the black wind banner (hēi fēng qí, 黑风旗) to eternally suppress her spirit, separating her from Xu Xian and their son. This imprisonment motif underscores themes of human-supernatural conflict and Buddhist exorcism, with the pagoda symbolizing unyielding orthodoxy against forbidden love. The legend's connection to Leifeng Pagoda evolved from Tang-era snake-demon lore, such as accounts of serpentine enchantments in Bó Yì Zhì (博异志), progressing through Song-Yuan vernacular tales like Xī Hú Sān Tǎ Jì (西湖三塔记, Record of the of ), which localized snake spirits to Hangzhou's region. It achieved a standardized narrative in the Ming dynasty's Jìng Shì Tōng Yán (警世通言, Cautionary Words to Instruct the World) by (c. 1620), in the chapter Bái Niáng Zǐ Yǒng Zhèn Léi Fēng Tǎ (白娘子永镇雷峰塔, The Eternally Suppresses Leifeng Pagoda), where the pagoda's role as prison is explicit. This version, drawing on accumulated rather than verifiable history, cemented the site's mythic status, portraying the structure as a relic empowered against reptilian malevolence. The association amplified Leifeng Pagoda's renown as one of West Lake's "Ten Scenes" (Xī Hú Shí Jǐng, 西湖十景), particularly Leifeng Xī Rì (雷峰夕照, Leifeng Pagoda at Sunset), evoking the tale's . Local beliefs attributed snake-repelling properties to the pagoda due to the , aiding Hangzhou's mulberry silkworm cultivation by deterring pests, though this reflects cultural rather than empirical efficacy. In the story's climax, Xu Xian's scholar son later topples the pagoda through scholarly merit or divine intervention, freeing and symbolizing triumph over repression, a motif echoed in later adaptations but unsubstantiated by historical records of the pagoda's 975 CE construction under King Qianchu.

Controversies and Criticisms

Superstition-Driven Destruction

The Leifeng Pagoda endured centuries of wear but ultimately succumbed to progressive structural weakening caused by the removal of its bricks by locals driven by superstitious beliefs. Throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, residents of extracted bricks from the pagoda, convinced that grinding them into powder and ingesting the abrasive material possessed curative powers against illnesses or could prevent miscarriages and promote . This practice stemmed from associating the structure with containment, amplifying perceptions of its materials as talismans warding off or misfortune. Such theft accelerated after the pagoda had already suffered partial damage from lightning strikes and wartime conflicts, including during the invasions by Japanese forces and later Republican-era instability, which stripped wooden elements and exposed the brick core. By the 1920s, the relentless pilfering had hollowed out the foundation, rendering the seven-story tower unstable; on August 25, 1924, the remaining structure collapsed entirely, leaving only rubble at the site overlooking . Historical records attribute this final demise not to deliberate demolition but to the cumulative effect of superstition-fueled , which local authorities failed to curb despite the pagoda's recognized cultural value. Contemporary accounts from Chinese state-affiliated media, drawing on archival , emphasize the role of and folk beliefs in the pagoda's neglect, contrasting with earlier imperial restorations that had preserved it as a Buddhist . While some sources note additional factors like from environmental exposure, the brick extractions—often numbering in the thousands over decades—directly undermined the load-bearing integrity, exemplifying how unfounded superstitions can precipitate the loss of historical monuments. No systematic efforts to protect the site preceded the collapse, allowing these practices to persist unchecked until irrecoverable damage occurred.

Debates on Reconstruction Authenticity

The reconstruction of Leifeng Pagoda between 2000 and 2002 prompted discussions among Chinese heritage experts on whether to restore the site, balancing archaeological preservation against the risks of altering historical ruins. Prior to the project, scholars debated rebuilding due to the pagoda's 1924 collapse, which stemmed from superstitious beliefs rather than natural decay, arguing that ruins better conveyed the site's layered history of destruction and cultural significance. Advocates for reconstruction emphasized protecting the exposed foundations and artifacts from environmental damage while reinstating the pagoda's silhouette in West Lake's , a key element of its World Heritage status. The design incorporated an underground palace to encase the original brick base and relics excavated in 2001, such as Song dynasty and Buddhist scriptures, allowing public viewing without direct exposure. This approach aimed to maintain visual and contextual authenticity by overlaying a modern seven-story steel-framed structure mimicking the original's octagonal form and height of approximately 45 meters, rather than attempting with fragmented originals. Skeptics questioned the project's fidelity, noting deviations from traditional materials like and fired bricks in favor of and metal reinforcements for seismic stability and durability, potentially diminishing tangible historical essence. Although direct critiques of Leifeng remain subdued compared to other Chinese sites, such as Nanjing's , the rebuild reflects broader tensions in heritage policy where tourism revenue—drawing over 5 million visitors annually—often overrides strict material authenticity, raising concerns about commodifying ruins into "recreated heritage."

Modern Significance and Access

Tourism and Preservation

The reconstructed attracts significant tourist traffic as an integral feature of the World Heritage-listed in , offering elevated viewpoints of the lake via internal elevators and displays of excavated relics from its underground palace. These include porcelain sculptures, wood carvings, and Buddhist artifacts unearthed during archaeological work completed on March 11, 2001. The site's narrative ties to the legend further draw cultural enthusiasts, contributing to its role in 's broader , which saw over 200 million visitors citywide in 2019. Admission to the costs 40 yuan per person, with operations managed by the Leifeng Tower Culture and Tourism Development Co., Ltd., under oversight from the Administration of Gardens and to balance high visitor volumes with site integrity. Visitor management strategies emphasize preserving the landscape's authenticity and harmony, in line with national cultural relics protection laws and West Lake's 2008-2020 Conservation and Management Plan. Preservation initiatives focused on the 2000-2002 reconstruction, which commenced in December 2000 and enclosed the exposed ruins of the original —destroyed by collapse in 1924—within a new five-story steel-framed structure to safeguard the archaeological remains while reinstating the iconic silhouette against the backdrop. This method protected the underground chamber's contents, including Ou-style porcelain figures and sealed scripture copies from the Kingdom era, preventing further degradation from exposure. The project adhered to principles of minimal intervention, ensuring the physical fabric remains in excellent condition without , as monitored under provincial heritage regulations.

Current Condition and Visitor Details

The current Leifeng Pagoda, reconstructed between December 2000 and October 2002, stands as a five-story octagonal tower approximately 72 meters tall on Sunset Hill south of in , Province. Constructed with modern materials including steel and concrete while incorporating traditional elements such as wood carvings and sculptures, it houses relics unearthed from the original site's underground palace in 2001, preserving archaeological finds like and Buddhist artifacts. The structure remains in good condition as a protected cultural site within the scenic area, with no reported major maintenance issues or damage in recent years, including resilience during events like typhoons in 2024. Visitor access is facilitated through the West Lake District, with the pagoda serving as a prime vantage point for panoramic views of the lake, especially at sunset. Opening hours vary seasonally: 08:00 to 20:00 from May to October, 08:00 to 19:00 from March 16 to April, and 08:00 to 17:30 from November to March 15, with ticket sales ceasing 30 minutes prior to closing. Admission costs 40 yuan per adult, with free entry for children under 6 years old or shorter than 1.2 meters; elevators provide accessibility to upper levels for observation decks. Annual visitor numbers contribute significantly to local tourism, often integrated with boat tours or nearby attractions like .

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