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Negative pulldown
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A comparison of 4-perf, 3-perf and 2-perf 35 mm film formats

Negative pulldown is the manner in which an image is exposed on a film stock, described by the number of film perforations spanned by an individual frame. It can also describe whether the image captured on the negative is oriented horizontally or vertically. Changing the number of exposed perforations allows a cinematographer to change both the aspect ratio of the image and the size of the area on the film stock that the image occupies (which affects image clarity).

The most common negative pulldowns for 35 mm film are 4-perf and 3-perf, the latter of which is usually used in conjunction with Super 35. 2-perf, used in Techniscope in the 1960s, is enjoying a slight resurgence due to the birth of digital intermediate techniques eliminating the need for optical lab work. Vertical pulldown is overwhelmingly the dominant axis of motion in cinematography, although horizontal pulldown is used in IMAX, VistaVision, and in 35 mm consumer and professional still cameras.

Usage of various formats

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History

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The majority of 35 mm film systems, cameras, telecine equipment, optical printers, or projectors, are configured to accommodate the 4-perf system; each frame of 35 mm is 4 perforations long. 4-perf was (and remains) the traditional system, and the majority of projectors are based on 4-perf, because 4 perforations is the amount needed per frame vertically in order to have enough negative space for a roughly squarish image, which became the silent film standard aspect ratio of 1.33:1.

Later, when the film industry was facing the perceived threat of obsolescence to television, universally a 1.33:1 aspect ratio at the time (and remained so in many countries until the introduction of DTV), studios started experimenting with various competing widescreen formats.

Current practice

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Eventually, aspect ratios of 1.85:1 in North America and 1.66:1 in Europe became standard for 35 mm productions shot with normal non-anamorphic lenses. However, the aspect ratio for these films is not created within the camera itself but is achieved during projection by placing a cropping device, known as an aperture mask, over the film. As a result, most films are shot in full-screen format—commonly, though inaccurately, referred to as 1.33:1 but actually 1.37:1 due to the inclusion of soundtracks—while being composed for aspect ratios such as 1.85:1 or 1.66:1. These films are then cropped to the desired aspect ratio during projection. Consequently, a significant portion of the film is unused, as the cropped top and bottom sections are typically not intended to be displayed unless the film was specifically protected for full-screen presentation. The 3-perf and 2-perf systems are employed only during the origination and post-production transfer stages.

35 mm

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2-perf

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Main article: Techniscope

2-perf camera systems use 2 perforations per frame on 35 mm film with an aspect ratio close to 2.39:1; the aspect ratio used in anamorphic prints. It was first proposed conceptually around 1930, but was not put into practice until 1961, when Techniscope was developed at Technicolor's Italian branch. It has recently been brought up again with the advent of higher quality, lower grain film stocks as well as digital intermediate post-production methods which eliminate optical blowups and thus improve quality. While in the recent past, some companies have offered custom conversions of camera equipment to 2-perf, it appears that camera manufacturers are now poised to support the format. Arri made 2-perf movement blocks for their Arricam and Arriflex 235 cameras available for rental in March 2007.[1] Aaton's Penelope camera, released in October 2008, was the first camera specifically designed for 2-perf usage (as well as 3-perf).

3-perf

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Main article: Super 35

In the early 1980s, Swedish cinematographer Rune Ericson collaborated with Panavision on the concept of creating a 3-perf mechanism for motion picture cameras.[2] The 3-perf system, achieved by altering the camera gate and shutter mechanism, reduces film wastage by using frames that are 3 perforations high instead of the standard 4-perforations. [3] This results in an aspect ratio of approximately 1.85:1, which closely aligns with the widescreen television aspect ratio of 1.78:1, thereby minimizing image loss outside this aspect ratio. Due to the smaller frame size, the camera operates about 25% slower, leading to a 25% reduction in film stock usage. Additionally, the camera operates more quietly because less film passes through the mechanism per frame. The Super 35 variant of 3-perf also provides a larger negative area, which can help offset the increase in grain when using higher-speed film stocks.

In the late 1990s, cinematographer Vittorio Storaro proposed a film standard known as Univisium (also called Univision), which advocated for 3-perf Super 35 to create a 2.00:1 aspect ratio.

Disadvantages of 3-perf and 2-perf

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One disadvantage of 3-perf and 2-perf is found when projected theatrically, as it needs to be transferred back to a 4-perf system. This typically involves a film print with black cropping on the print itself in order to fit the image onto a 4-perf frame – encountering the same wastage problem as before. Even so, the amount of film shot on a production is much greater than the length of the final film, so 3-perf or 2-perf are still viable cost-saving options for production. Generally, 3-perf is most frequently used for widescreen television productions shot on film, as film is developed and then transferred to video, rendering projection incompatibilities irrelevant. Recently, this process has become popular with big-budget motion picture production, due to the advent of the digital intermediate process. The negative is scanned to high resolution (usually HD, 2K or 4K (digital cinema)) digital files, colour graded, and ultimately printed back to standard 4-perf for projection. At some point in the future, the final 4-perf print will become unnecessary assuming the cinema distribution and projection chain become fully digital.

3-perf and 2-perf pose minor problems for visual effects work. The area of the film in 4-perf work that is not projected nonetheless contains picture information which is useful for such visual effects tasks as 2D and 3D tracking.[citation needed] This mildly complicates certain visual effects efforts for productions using 3-perf and 2-perf.

A VistaVision 35 mm frame, marked for a 1.85:1 crop

VistaVision

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Main article: VistaVision

VistaVision is a higher resolution, widescreen variant of the 35 mm motion picture film format which was created by Paramount Pictures in 1954. It uses a horizontal, 8 perforation 35 mm image, similar to that used in 135 film for still photography. Paramount did not use anamorphic processes such as CinemaScope but refined the quality of their flat widescreen system by orienting the 35 mm negative horizontally in the camera gate and shooting onto a larger area, which yielded a finer-grained projection print.

70 mm

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Main article: 70 mm film

Standard 65 mm (5/70) (Todd-AO, Super Panavision)

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  • spherical lenses
  • 5 perforations/frame
  • 42 frames/meter (12.8 frame/ft)
  • 34.29 meters/minute (112.5 ft/minute)
  • vertical pulldown
  • 24 frames/second
  • camera aperture: 52.48 by 23.01 mm (2.066 by 0.906 in)
  • projection aperture: 48.56 by 20.73 mm (1.912 by 0.816 in)
  • 305 m (1000 feet), about 9 minutes at 24 frame/s = 4.5 kg (10 pounds) in can
  • aspect ratio: 2.2:1

Ultra Panavision 70 (MGM Camera 65)

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Main article: Ultra Panavision 70

Same as Standard 65 mm except

  • Shot with special anamorphic adapter in front of lens
  • 1.25× squeeze factor, projected aspect ratio 2.76:1

Showscan

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Main article: Showscan

Same as Standard 65 mm except

  • 60 frames per second

IMAX (15/70)

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Main article: IMAX
  • spherical lenses
  • 15 perforations per frame
  • horizontal movement, from right to left (viewed from base side)
  • 24 frames per second
  • camera aperture: 70.41 by 52.63 mm (2.772 by 2.072 in)
  • projection aperture: at least 2 mm (0.080 in) less than camera aperture on the vertical axis and at least 0.4 mm (0.016 in) less on the horizontal axis
  • aspect ratio: 1.35:1 (camera), 1.43:1 (projected)

Dynavision (8/70) (Also known as Iwerks 8/70)

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  • fisheye or spherical lenses, depending on if projecting for a dome or not
  • vertical pulldown
  • 24 or 30 frames per second
  • camera aperture: 52.83 by 37.59 mm (2.080 by 1.480 in)

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Negative pulldown

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from Grokipedia
Negative pulldown is the technique used in to expose images on motion picture , defined by the number of perforations—small holes along the film's edges that engage with the camera's sprockets—spanned by each individual frame during advancement through the gate. This pulldown determines the frame height and thus the , resolution potential, and film stock efficiency of the captured footage. The standard format for 35mm film, established since the early , is the 4-perforation (4-perf) pulldown, where each frame covers four perforations, yielding a native of approximately 1.33:1 (the ) and allowing for 16 frames per foot of film at 24 frames per second. Variations on the standard 4-perf pulldown emerged to accommodate formats, reduce production costs, and extend shooting time per roll without compromising image quality. The 3-perforation (3-perf) format, introduced in the 1980s by cinematographer Rune Ericson and , uses three perforations per frame, resulting in a shorter frame and about 25% savings in compared to 4-perf, supporting aspect ratios around 1.78:1 (16:9) that can be cropped to 1.85:1 or 2.39:1, and has been employed in films like (2018) and in Hollywood (2019). The 2-perforation (2-perf) format, also known as and pioneered in 1963 by Italia, halves the frame to two perforations, enabling a native 2.40:1 aspect ratio with spherical lenses while saving up to 50% on ; it provides a distinctive gritty texture due to the smaller negative area and was used in classics such as The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1967) and more recent works like The Sound of Metal (2019). These alternatives allow filmmakers to balance economic constraints with creative needs, though they may introduce more visible grain or require specialized cameras and workflows. Historically, negative pulldown formats reflect the evolution of cinema from silent-era standards to modern digital-era revivals of analog shooting. The 4-perf became the norm with the adoption of 35mm film in the 1890s–1900s, providing high fidelity suitable for and projection. Innovations like 2-perf gained traction in the for low-budget European productions seeking aesthetics without anamorphic lenses, while 3-perf addressed rising film costs in the amid the shift to television and . Today, these formats persist in prestige projects valuing the tactile, organic look of film, often scanned to digital intermediates for distribution, underscoring their role in preserving analog craftsmanship amid hybrid workflows.

Fundamentals

Definition and Principles

Negative pulldown refers to the vertical or horizontal advancement of 35mm or 70mm in a motion picture camera by a precise number of perforations per frame during the exposure process. This mechanism ensures intermittent movement of the film, allowing each frame to be held stationary behind the camera's for exposure while the shutter blocks during advancement. The perforations, or sprocket holes, along the edges of the film stock engage with a pulldown that pulls the film through the camera gate in a controlled manner, typically advancing it by four perforations for the standard 35mm format. The basic principles of negative pulldown revolve around optimizing the exposed image area on the film negative, which directly influences film economy, resolution, and achievable aspect ratios. In the baseline 4-perf vertical pulldown for 35mm film, each frame spans 24.90 mm in width and 18.70 mm in height, providing an exposure area of approximately 1.33:1 aspect ratio at a standard frame rate of 24 frames per second. This configuration uses more film stock compared to reduced-perforation methods— for instance, a 400-foot magazine yields about 4 minutes and 26 seconds of footage— but maximizes the negative area for higher image quality and reduced grain visibility. Pulldown distance determines the frame height, enabling variations in aspect ratios for different cinematic formats without altering the film's physical gauge, thus promoting economy in widescreen cinematography by utilizing the full width of the stock. A key distinction exists between camera negative pulldown and projector or print pulldown: while cameras allow flexible pulldown (e.g., 2-, 3-, or 4-perf) to capture optimized negatives, projection and printing typically adhere to the 4-perf standard for compatibility with existing equipment. In widescreen applications, camera pulldown maximizes the exposed negative area, which can then be cropped or optically printed to fit standard projection formats, preserving detail without requiring larger film gauges. The mechanics involve the film threading through the camera's pressure plates and gate, where the intermittent claw engages the perforations to advance the stock precisely, registering each frame flat against the aperture plate before the shutter rotates to expose it to light. This 4-perf vertical pulldown became the industry baseline during the transition from silent to sound films in the early , standardizing frame dimensions to accommodate optical soundtracks alongside the image.

Perforation Standards

Negative pulldown in motion picture relies on precise specifications to ensure accurate intermittent movement through cameras, printers, and projectors. For 35mm , two primary types are used: (BH) and Kodak Standard (KS). BH , designed for camera negatives and intermediate films, feature flat tops and bottoms with curved sides, measuring 0.1100 inches (2.794 mm) in width and approximately 0.073 inches (1.85 mm) in height, with a standard pitch of 0.1870 inches (4.750 mm) for long-pitch variants (BH-1870) or 0.1866 inches (4.740 mm) for short-pitch (BH-1866). In contrast, KS , intended for positive prints to enhance durability during projection, are rectangular with rounded corners for added strength, maintaining the same width of 0.1100 inches but increasing height to 0.0780 inches (1.981 mm), and using the identical pitch options of 0.1870 inches or 0.1866 inches. These differences allow BH-perforated negatives to be processed and printed onto KS-perforated positives without misalignment, as the pitch remains consistent, facilitating reliable pulldown engagement in equipment. For 70mm film, perforations follow a scaled compatible with horizontal pulldown in certain formats, such as those employing wider frame exposure across the film's , with perforations along both edges to support vertical or horizontal . The perforations maintain a pitch of 0.1870 inches (4.750 mm) to align with 35mm standards, but feature larger dimensions overall, such as a width of 0.125 inches (3.175 mm) and a height of 0.100 inches (2.54 mm), and an effective pitch consideration of 0.374 inches (9.50 mm) in horizontal configurations to accommodate the doubled frame span. This setup supports stable horizontal movement in specialized systems, where the film's width becomes the pulldown direction, enabling larger image areas while preserving sprocket engagement. The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), founded in , has defined these perforation specifications since through standards like PH22.34 for BH and PH22.36 for KS, ensuring interoperability across negative processing, printing, and projection workflows. Early publications established baseline dimensions to reduce wear and variability, with ongoing revisions (e.g., ANSI/SMPTE 145-2004 for KS-1870) maintaining compatibility for pulldown mechanisms. These standards prevent issues like or slippage during intermittent advance, critical for precise negative-to-positive transfer. Film usage calculations derive from these perforation pitches, determining runtime and material needs. For standard 4-perf 35mm at 24 frames per second, the formula is: feet per minute = (4 perforations/frame × 24 frames/second × 0.187 inches/perforation) / 12 inches/foot × 60 seconds/minute ≈ 90 feet/minute. This yields approximately 90 feet of film per minute of runtime, establishing baseline efficiency for pulldown-based formats. Such metrics underscore how perforation standards directly influence production economics and equipment design. These specifications also enable non-standard pulldowns, such as 3-perf 35mm, by leveraging the fixed pitch for reduced waste.

Historical Development

Early 20th-Century Origins

The development of negative pulldown began with the invention of 35mm perforated film stock by Thomas Edison's team, led by William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, in 1891 for use in the Kinetograph motion picture camera. This camera employed a vertical film transport system, where perforations along the edges allowed a clawed mechanism to intermittently pull the film downward through the exposure gate, advancing it frame by frame. Early experiments focused on achieving smooth vertical pulldown to capture motion without excessive jitter, building on the Kinetoscope's horizontal-loop design but adapting it for projected cinema. During the silent film era (1890s–1920s), variable frame rates of 16–22 frames per second influenced pulldown design, as hand-cranked cameras required flexible mechanisms to match inconsistent cranking speeds while maintaining registration. The standard frame height was established at four perforations (4-perf pulldown), a decision by Dickson to optimize image size on the slitted 35mm stock, providing approximately 0.980 inches (24.89 mm) of vertical frame space for a 1.33:1 aspect ratio. This 4-perf advance became the foundational intermittent movement for both cameras and projectors, enabling precise exposure and projection intervals. In the 1920s, key refinements enhanced pulldown reliability, including the introduction of (BH) perforations in 1924, which featured rounded corners for reduced wear and smoother engagement with sprockets, improving steadiness during vertical advances. Early widescreen experiments, such as Magnascope in the mid-1920s, relied on variable masks in projectors to expand the image width without altering the 4-perf pulldown, as seen in films like The Covered Wagon (1923). The transition to synchronized sound from 1927 onward necessitated standardization; by 1930, 24 fps became the norm to align pulldown with optical soundtrack timing, while the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences defined the 1.37:1 in 1932, narrowing the to accommodate the soundtrack but retaining 4-perf pulldown. Technical milestones included the widespread adoption of the Geneva cross (or ) mechanism for intermittent movement, refined in the late 1890s by inventors like Oskar Messter and , which used a rotating drive to lock the film stationary for exposure before precisely advancing four perforations. This mechanism ensured minimal blur and consistent frame registration, solidifying 4-perf as the enduring standard for 35mm negative pulldown through the early sound era.

Mid-Century Innovations

The mid-1950s marked a pivotal era in negative pulldown innovation, driven by Hollywood's urgent need to differentiate theatrical cinema from the rising popularity of television. In response, 20th Century Fox introduced in 1953 with , employing standard 4-perforation vertical pulldown on 35mm film combined with anamorphic lenses to achieve a 2.55:1 , effectively squeezing a wide image onto the conventional frame for later expansion during projection. This system, which built on earlier anamorphic experiments, allowed theaters to project immersive visuals without major equipment overhauls, though it required precise lens alignment to mitigate distortion. Concurrently, Paramount launched in 1954 with White Christmas, utilizing an 8-perforation horizontal pulldown on 35mm film—often called "lazy 8"—to capture a larger negative area approximately 2.66 times that of standard 4-perf, enhancing resolution for optical to vertical 4-perf release prints at up to 2.00:1 aspect ratios. Building on these foundations, the late and saw further experimentation with larger formats to achieve even greater fidelity and width. debuted in 1955 with Oklahoma!, employing 5-perforation vertical pulldown on 65mm negative stock at 30 frames per second, yielding a 2.20:1 and high detail for 70mm prints, which represented a significant departure from 35mm norms by prioritizing negative quality over stock economy. MGM's Camera 65 system, introduced in 1957 for Raintree County and refined as by 1960 for films like Ben-Hur, also used 5-perforation vertical pulldown on 65mm film but incorporated a 1.25x anamorphic squeeze to deliver a super-wide 2.76:1 , enabling compatibility with both 70mm projection and select setups. These innovations shifted pulldown from rigid 4-perf standards toward multi-perforation and horizontal orientations, facilitating contact printing techniques that preserved image sharpness during duplication. Key figures shaped this period's advancements, with French inventor Henri Chrétien exerting indirect but profound influence through his 1927 patent for the Hypergonar anamorphic lens, licensed by Fox in 1951 to underpin CinemaScope's optical compression. In the 1970s, Canadian Miklós Lente patented the Trilent 35 system in 1975, proposing a 3-perforation vertical pulldown for 35mm to capture full-aperture images while reducing stock usage, though it remained uncommercialized until later digital-era revivals. Economic pressures post-World War II, including escalating prices amid recoveries and the need to economize for color processes, fueled these perf-saving experiments; for instance, VistaVision's horizontal feed enabled finer-grain negatives via contact printing, minimizing generational loss and costs in high-volume production. Such drivers underscored a broader transition from optical reduction printing to more efficient workflows, setting the stage for 70mm variants explored later.

35mm Formats

3-Perf Pulldown

The 3-perf pulldown format for 35mm film advances the negative vertically by three perforations per frame, utilizing a camera of approximately 24.89 mm wide by 14 mm high in configuration. This setup exposes a taller frame relative to 2-perf but shorter than the standard 4-perf height of 18.7 mm, allowing for efficient use of the film's full width while reducing vertical travel. The mechanism is compatible with workflows, where the exposed area avoids the optical soundtrack area on the print, enabling seamless integration with existing camera systems modified for this pulldown. Developed in the 1980s, the 3-perf system originated from collaborations between Swedish Rune Ericson and , who produced the first 3-perf mechanisms for 35mm cinema cameras around 1986. Ericson shot the first in this format, Pirates of the Lake (1986), using modified Panaflex cameras to demonstrate its potential for production. The format gained traction in the through support from manufacturers like , whose and earlier models were adapted for 3-perf operation, making it viable for both television and theatrical shoots seeking cost efficiencies. This format supports native aspect ratios from 1.66:1 to 1.85:1 without anamorphic lenses, as the 1.75:1 intrinsic ratio of the 3-perf frame aligns closely with common flat standards, allowing minor cropping for 1.78:1 or 1.85:1 releases. Compared to 4-perf, it achieves approximately 25% savings in and processing costs, extending runtime per 1,000-foot from about 11 minutes to 14 minutes. These efficiencies made it particularly appealing for budget-conscious productions aiming for high-quality imagery without optical distortion. In post-production, 3-perf negatives are typically scanned at high resolution for digital intermediates or optically printed to 4-perf intermediates for theatrical release, preserving the full frame area during transfer. This process involves conforming the 3-perf timeline to 4-perf standards, often via digital color correction and reframing before outputting to prints or packages. Notable examples include The Killing of a Sacred Deer (2017), shot on LT cameras in 3-perf ; The Favourite (2018), captured primarily in natural light on systems; and Once Upon a Time... in Hollywood (2019), which used 3-perf for key sequences to achieve its period look.

2-Perf Pulldown

The 2-perf pulldown format in 35mm film involves advancing the negative by two perforations per frame, resulting in a compact camera of approximately 24.9 mm wide by 9.5 mm high, the shortest vertical dimension among standard 35mm pulldown methods. This configuration requires specialized camera setups, such as modifications to models like the ARRICAM LT or Panaflex Millennium, to accommodate the reduced frame height while maintaining full horizontal width for optimal image area usage. The format pulls down vertically like traditional 4-perf but halves the exposed height, enabling efficient use of standard 35mm in production cameras. Originally developed as by Italia in the early for cost-effective widescreen filmmaking, the 2-perf approach saw a modern revival in the 2000s, particularly after 2010, as workflows made it easier to scan the compact negative and print to conventional 4-perf distribution formats without optical printing losses. This resurgence aligned with indie productions seeking 35mm aesthetics on tighter budgets, building briefly on 3-perf precedents for intermediate economy but emphasizing even greater horizontal bias for scope ratios. contributed through custom modifications to cameras like the series, facilitating adoption in contemporary shoots. The format natively supports aspect ratios such as 2.39:1 with anamorphic lenses or 1.85:1 spherical, capturing a broad horizontal field while minimizing vertical waste, which suits narrative-driven scenes with expansive compositions. Compared to standard 4-perf pulldown, 2-perf reduces film consumption by 50%, effectively doubling the runtime per 400-foot magazine to about 8.8 minutes at 24 fps, making it ideal for extended takes and lowering raw stock and processing costs in resource-limited projects. This economy is especially valuable in modern indie workflows, where digital scanning at 4K preserves the format's organic grain and without proportional expense increases. Notable applications include the 2022 indie drama To Leslie, where cinematographer Dylan Navarro used 2-perf on an ARRICAM LT with Kodak Vision3 500T stock to achieve a raw, gritty visual texture that enhanced the film's intimate portrayal of struggle, shot handheld over 19 days. Similarly, I, Tonya (2017) employed 2-perf for its dramatic reenactments, delivering a vibrant, lived-in 35mm look that complemented the biopic's energetic tone, as captured by cinematographer Nicolas Karakatsanis. In The Truth (2019), director Hirokazu Kore-eda opted for 2-perf on ARRICAM cameras with Leitz Summilux primes to evoke a gentle, textured aesthetic in 1.85:1, unifying the story's emotional depth while halving production costs. Other examples like Sound of Metal (2019) highlight its role in scope indie features for visual punch on limited runs. Due to the unusual shorter frame height, 2-perf demands careful magazine loading and unloading to prevent misalignment or damage during transport and processing.

VistaVision

VistaVision employs a horizontal pulldown mechanism on 35mm , transporting the negative sideways through the camera to expose eight perforations per frame, effectively doubling the standard frame width for a larger image area. This configuration results in a camera of approximately 37.7 mm by 24.9 mm, providing a negative area approximately twice that of conventional vertical 4-perf 35mm frames. Introduced by in as a high-resolution system, VistaVision avoided anamorphic , relying instead on the expansive negative for superior detail and clarity. The format's development focused on optical reduction , where the horizontal negative is rotated 90 degrees and reduced by a factor of about 1.63:1 to produce standard vertical 35mm release prints or larger 70mm prints, minimizing grain and degradation in the process. With a native of roughly 1.47:1, frames could be cropped during or projection to achieve ratios from 1.50:1 up to 1.85:1, offering flexibility for various theater aspect ratios without distortion. This larger negative area proved especially valuable for visual effects-heavy productions, as it supported multiple generations of optical with reduced loss of resolution and finer grain structure. Prominent examples include Alfred Hitchcock's Vertigo (1958) and North by Northwest (1959), where the format enhanced the sharpness of intricate location shots and matte paintings. Production of new VistaVision originals waned by the early 1960s, supplanted by advancing film stocks and competing widescreen processes, with the last major Paramount feature, One-Eyed Jacks (1961), marking its decline. The format saw a revival in 2024 with The Brutalist, the first major feature shot in VistaVision since 1961. Nonetheless, its horizontal orientation and emphasis on large-format negatives influenced subsequent technologies, including scanning methods for IMAX film preservation and projection.

Comparative Advantages and Limitations

Negative pulldown formats in 35mm film, such as 3-perf, 2-perf, and , offer significant advantages in resource efficiency and image quality compared to the standard 4-perf pulldown. These formats typically achieve savings of 25% for 3-perf and up to 50% for 2-perf relative to 4-perf, reducing raw material consumption and associated waste during production. , employing an 8-perf horizontal pulldown, provides a larger negative area (approximately 37.7 x 25.2 mm), which enhances resolution and minimizes visible , particularly beneficial for and effects work where multiple image layers are combined without substantial degradation. Overall, the expanded negative area in these pulldowns supports superior sharpness and finer structure, while the reduced frame height in vertical formats like 3-perf and 2-perf allows for greater flexibility in adjusting aspect ratios without compromising horizontal resolution. Despite these benefits, negative pulldown formats present notable limitations, primarily stemming from equipment and workflow incompatibilities. All require camera modifications, such as altered pulldown mechanisms and registration pins, to accommodate non-standard frame advances, which can introduce registration errors—especially in 2-perf where the smaller frame height (9.35 mm) exacerbates misalignment risks during exposure. Processing costs increase due to specialized handling and the need for optical or digital enlargement to standard 4-perf prints for compatibility with conventional projectors, rendering these negatives incompatible with unmodified analog projection systems. VistaVision's horizontal orientation further complicates on-set handling, making it cumbersome for full-feature shoots and necessitating dedicated cameras that elevate upfront equipment expenses. Technical challenges in these formats often revolve around image steadiness and environmental sensitivities. Non-4-perf pulldowns are prone to and unsteadiness, as the irregular engagement disrupts consistent frame registration, leading to vertical weave or horizontal instability during camera movement or projection if not precisely calibrated. In , the taller vertical frame height amplifies susceptibility to heat distortion from camera internals or ambient conditions, potentially warping the and affecting focus uniformity across the larger negative area. These issues demand rigorous testing and stabilization techniques, such as enhanced pin registration, to mitigate artifacts. Economically, the trade-offs favor longer features over short films, where film savings (25-50%) yield substantial reductions in stock and processing expenses for extended runtimes, potentially offsetting modification costs in high-volume productions. For , the fixed setup expenses— including camera retrofits and specialized labs—often outweigh savings, making standard 4-perf more practical unless resolution demands justify the . In modern contexts, digital scanning adaptations for legacy negatives scanned at 2K or 4K resolutions enable workflows, preserving the enhanced detail of pulldown formats while facilitating cost-effective restoration and distribution, though initial scanning remains resource-intensive.

70mm Formats

Standard 65mm (5/70)

The standard 65mm (5/70) format employs a vertical 5-perforation pulldown on 65mm negative stock in the camera, advancing the film by five perforations per frame at 24 frames per second to capture a wide image area. This negative is then printed onto 70mm release stock, which includes additional width for an optical , resulting in a print of approximately 48.3 mm wide by 22.1 mm high. The larger film gauge allows for significantly greater detail retention during projection compared to narrower formats, with the non-anamorphic spherical lenses preserving natural perspective without distortion. Todd-AO, the pioneering process behind this format, was developed in 1955 by producer in collaboration with the and Magna Theatre Corporation as a response to multi-camera widescreen systems like . Cameras were modified from existing 35mm Mitchell models to accommodate the wider 65mm stock, enabling single-camera shooting with high fidelity. The debut film, "Oklahoma!" (1955), directed by , showcased the format's capabilities in a roadshow presentation, emphasizing expansive landscapes and musical sequences with unprecedented clarity. Panavision introduced its version, Super Panavision 70, in 1959 to provide an alternative to Todd-AO, utilizing compatible 65mm cameras and optics while focusing on rental equipment rather than royalties. The format supports aspect ratios ranging from 2.20:1 (standard for optical prints) to 2.55:1 (early magnetic-only configurations), achieved through non-anamorphic imaging that delivers superior resolution—roughly 3.5 times the negative area of standard 35mm—resulting in sharper fine details, richer colors, and reduced grain in epic productions. Notable films include "Lawrence of Arabia" (1962, directed by ), which captured vast desert vistas with remarkable depth, and "The Sound of Music" (1965, directed by ), highlighting alpine scenery and ensemble scenes with luminous quality. These advantages made the format ideal for prestige roadshows, outperforming 35mm anamorphic systems in image fidelity despite higher production costs.

Ultra Panavision 70

, also known as MGM Camera 65, is an anamorphic variant of the designed for extreme presentation. It employs a 5-perforation vertical pulldown on 65mm negative stock, capturing images with a mild 1.25:1 anamorphic squeeze to expand the standard to an expansive 2.76:1 on projection. This configuration utilizes the full width of the 65mm while compressing the horizontal field, allowing for heightened immersion in epic storytelling without altering the fundamental vertical orientation of the medium. The format shares technical roots with non-anamorphic 65mm systems like , differing primarily in its optical compression to achieve greater width. Development of began in 1954 under , spearheaded by sound director and optical designer Robert Gottschalk in collaboration with , to meet the demands of large-scale productions like Ben-Hur. The system was refined by 1955, incorporating modified Mitchell cameras adapted from 35mm and older 70mm models to handle 65mm filmstock, housed in 's soundproof blimps for studio compatibility. The first production, Raintree County (1957), served as a , though it was initially released in 35mm due to limited 70mm projection infrastructure; Ben-Hur (1959) marked the format's debut in full 70mm glory, earning acclaim for its visual grandeur. The format's high production costs, including expensive 65mm film and specialized anamorphic optics, restricted its use to just 11 feature films through the , primarily epics suited to its panoramic scope. Notable examples include (1962), which was the first to be officially credited as Ultra Panavision, and It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963), leveraging the 2.76:1 ratio for comedic ensemble vistas. Other titles encompassed The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964), (1965), and (1966), but commercial underperformance and the rise of more economical alternatives like 35mm anamorphic led to its dormancy by the late . Interest in revived in the amid a resurgence of analog large-format , with Quentin Tarantino's (2015) becoming the first new production in nearly 50 years, shot on refurbished System 65 cameras with original-era lenses for a distinctive soft, glamorous aesthetic. Discussions in the 2020s have centered on its potential for modern epics, culminating in Ryan Coogler's (2025), the first film to integrate alongside sequences, highlighting its enduring appeal for immersive, high-fidelity visuals in an era of digital dominance.

IMAX (15/70)

The 15/70 format utilizes a horizontal pulldown mechanism on stock, advancing the film by 15 perforations per frame to expose a camera measuring 70.41 mm wide by 52.63 mm high. This configuration orients the frame vertically relative to the film's travel direction, producing a large negative area optimized for giant-screen projection with minimal grain and high resolution. The system incorporates a rolling loop movement, which gently transports the bulky film horizontally through the camera and at 24 , reducing mechanical stress and ensuring steady registration essential for immersive viewing; this design also enables 3D capability via dual 15/70mm strips projected through polarized lenses. Developed by the , founded in 1967 by filmmakers Graeme Ferguson, , and Robert Kerr in , the 15/70 format emerged from efforts to create a revolutionary large-format system for in , . The inaugural production, the 17-minute documentary directed by Donald Brittain, premiered at the event in 1970, marking the first use of the horizontal 15-perf pulldown on and demonstrating the format's potential for educational and spectacle-driven content on screens up to six stories tall. Over the decades, the technology evolved to include digital remastering of classic 35 mm films into 15/70 prints, such as the 2002 re-release of , expanding its application beyond original productions while preserving the analog pulldown mechanics. The format's native is 1.43:1 when utilizing the full frame height, providing a squarer composition ideal for expansive vertical fields like landscapes or action sequences, though it is often masked to 1.90:1 to align with theater standards. Some productions employ horizontal framing within the to achieve wider compositions approaching 1.90:1 or beyond, balancing the format's tall potential with narrative needs. The image area is approximately 10 times larger than a standard 35 mm 4-perf frame, contributing to superior detail and . Notable applications include Christopher Nolan's Interstellar (2014), which incorporated 65 mm IMAX sequences printed to 15/70 mm for key space and planetary scenes, leveraging the pulldown's stability for IMAX-exclusive 1.43:1 expansions. Similarly, Oppenheimer (2023) utilized full 15/70 mm film for its historical recreations, reviving the format's use in mainstream narrative cinema and prompting a resurgence in analog projection installations. These examples highlight the 15/70 pulldown's enduring role in delivering unparalleled scale and fidelity.

Specialized Variants

Showscan, developed by special effects pioneer in the early 1980s, represents a high-frame-rate variant of 70mm pulldown designed to enhance motion realism through increased . The system employs 65mm negative filmstock exposed at 60 frames per second—double the standard 24 fps rate—resulting in smoother, more lifelike movement that minimizes judder and strobing effects on large screens. Prints are made on 70mm stock using a conventional 5-perforation vertical pulldown, but the elevated speed demands specialized cameras and projectors capable of handling the rapid film transport, which consumes film at a rate five times that of traditional 70mm. Trumbull's innovation aimed at immersive experiences, particularly in theme parks and simulations, though commercial adoption was limited due to high production costs and the lack of widespread projection infrastructure. Dynavision, also known as the Iwerks 8/70 format, emerged in the as a cost-effective alternative to larger-perforation 70mm systems, utilizing an 8-perforation vertical pulldown on 65mm negative for projection on 70mm . This configuration yields a frame approximately 1.85 times the area of standard 5-perf 70mm but about half that of 15/70, allowing reduced film usage compared to IMAX while maintaining high resolution suitable for aspect ratios around 1.66:1 to 1.85:1, depending on masking. Developed by Iwerks Entertainment, it found primary application in theme park attractions and ride films during the , where its efficiency supported dynamic, high-impact presentations on motion platforms without the prohibitive expenses of IMAX-scale formats. The system's vertical orientation and moderate frame size enabled easier integration with existing 70mm printers and projectors, though it saw declining use with the rise of digital projection in specialized venues. Omnimax, a dome-specific offshoot of IMAX technology introduced in the 1970s, adapts the 15/70mm format for hemispherical screens through a horizontal pulldown of 15 perforations on 70mm , oriented sideways to maximize frame height. Paired with fisheye lenses during capture and projection, this setup distorts the image for 180-degree immersion in planetariums and science centers, delivering an effectively filling the curved dome surface. Building briefly on core principles of large-format clarity, Omnimax prioritized educational and experiential content over narrative cinema. By the early , the format was largely phased out in favor of digital dome systems, which offered greater flexibility and lower maintenance without the mechanical complexities of high-perforation analog pulldown.

Modern Applications

Current Industry Usage

In the 2020s, negative pulldown techniques, particularly 3-perf and 2-perf on 35mm film, have experienced a revival driven by filmmakers seeking the unique texture, grain, and organic depth that analog capture provides, even as digital dominates production. This resurgence is evident in independent and prestige projects, such as (2024), which utilized 3-perf 35mm alongside other formats like to achieve varied visual aesthetics and cost efficiency, and Die, My Love (2025), shot on 35mm by cinematographer . Hybrid workflows have become standard for these analog shoots, where 2-perf or 3-perf negative is exposed in-camera and then scanned at high resolution for digital , including integration. For instance, I Know This Much Is True (2020) employed 2-perf and 3-perf Vision3 stocks, with the resulting scans blended with plates for VFX enhancement. continues to support these formats through its Vision3 color negative films, which are compatible with perf-modified pulldowns and offer extended latitude suitable for scanning. Similarly, To Leslie (2023) was captured entirely on 2-perf 35mm and scanned for finishing, prioritizing authentic grit over digital emulation. Adoption extends to high-profile prestige films, exemplified by Oppenheimer (2023), which incorporated 65mm sections with 15-perf horizontal pulldown for immersive sequences, scanned into digital intermediates for editing and effects. ARRI's analog cameras, such as the ARRIFLEX series, support 3-perf movements, enabling seamless integration with modern spherical and anamorphic lenses for these workflows. Film-based negative pulldown remains a niche but persistent role in high-end productions. This approach proves economically viable for budgets exceeding $50 million, where the added cost of and processing—offset by reduced footage in 2-perf or 3-perf—is justified by the artistic premium in marketing and awards potential for event cinema.

Technical Challenges and Adaptations

One significant technical challenge in negative pulldown arises from registration instability, particularly in non-standard formats like 2-perf and 3-perf, where the reduced engagement can lead to weave or lateral movement during exposure and scanning. This instability is exacerbated in 2-perf setups, which use a two-perforation pulldown to achieve aspect ratios on standard 35mm stock, potentially introducing subtle frame-to-frame that affects sharpness in workflows. Similarly, 3-perf pulldown, designed to extend runtime by 25% over 4-perf, faces issues with inconsistent transport in unmodified cameras, complicating integration with traditional projection systems. Additionally, the scarcity of cameras modified for these formats has intensified since , as fewer rental houses maintain 2-perf or 3-perf conversions amid declining film production volumes, limiting access for independent filmmakers. Environmental concerns further compound these issues, as chemical processing of negative film involves hazardous substances like silver halides and developers, which pose risks of and require specialized waste management under regulations like the EPA's Photographic Effluent Guidelines. To address these challenges, (DI) workflows have become essential for correcting pulldown variations, enabling precise cropping, stabilization, and format conversion during scanning and . In DI processes, scanned negatives from non-4-perf pulldowns are aligned and stabilized digitally, mitigating weave through software tools that reconstruct full-frame equivalents for output to 4-perf prints or packages. Advanced scanning technologies, such as ARRI's ARRISCAN XT introduced in the early , support non-standard perforations including 2-perf and 3-perf via adjustable gates and sprocketless transport, allowing high-resolution digitization (up to 6.5K) of damaged or irregularly formatted stock with reduced artifacts. For re-releases, AI-based stabilization has emerged as a key adaptation, using algorithms to analyze and correct frame instability in scanned 70mm negatives, as demonstrated in restorations where AI upscaling and motion correction enhance archival footage for modern projection. Looking ahead, the development of hybrid film-digital cameras could alleviate pulldown-related hardware limitations by integrating electronic sensors with analog mechanisms, building on prototypes like Aaton's system that enabled hybrid film or digital capture. efforts are also driving innovations, with industry pushes toward recycled —reprocessing unused or archival negatives to reduce virgin material demand—supported by initiatives like those at , which emphasize waste minimization in motion picture production. These adaptations reflect a broader shift toward eco-conscious practices, potentially extending the viability of negative pulldown in an era dominated by digital capture. A notable case study is the 2023 production of Oppenheimer, shot entirely on 65mm negative for 70mm release, which highlighted pulldown challenges in large-format . The 's 15-perf horizontal pulldown demanded precise registration to avoid instability across its expansive frames, but processing the voluminous negative stock strained labs, leading to reported projector breakdowns during early 70mm screenings due to print imperfections and transport issues. In contrast, its digital finishing via DI workflows successfully stabilized and graded the material, enabling seamless integration of sequences with large-format 65mm elements, demonstrating how tools can overcome on-set pulldown hurdles for hybrid releases.

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