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List of political parties in New Zealand
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New Zealand politics have featured a strong party system since the early 20th century. Usually, all members of Parliament's unicameral House of Representatives belong to a political party.[a][1]
The centre-left New Zealand Labour Party and the centre-right New Zealand National Party are New Zealand's two major parties, having jointly contested each election since 1938; they are the only two New Zealand political parties to have won the popular vote in four consecutive elections twice. Labour won the popular vote from the 1938 election through to 1946 and again from 1978 through to 1987 – although during the latter period National twice disproportionately gained a majority of seats. Likewise, National won the popular vote from 1960 through to 1969, and then again from 2008 through to 2017, but in the final year could not form a coalition government under proportional representation.
The introduction of the mixed-member proportional system in 1996 led to a multi-party system, such that smaller parties have substantial representation in Parliament and can now reasonably expect to gain seats in government. As of 2024[update], six parties have members in the 54th Parliament.
History
[edit]New Zealand's party system did not arise until the late 19th century. Before this, members of Parliament (MPs) stood as independent candidates, and while some MPs joined factions, these typically were formed around prominent individuals such as Julius Vogel, and did so after an election, not before.[2]
The Liberal Party, which was formed in 1891, was New Zealand's first 'modern' political party.[3] It was the country's sole political party until the formation of the more conservative Reform Party in 1909.[2] The Labour Party was founded in 1916, and by 1919 these three parties dominated New Zealand politics.[2]
The Liberal Party was succeeded by the United Party in 1928.[4] The United and Reform parties found themselves working together more often, and they formed a coalition in 1931.[4] After Labour won office in 1935,[2] United and Reform formally amalgamated in 1936 to form the National Party.[5] The first-past-the-post (FPP) plurality voting system (in use before the 1990s) entrenched a two-party system, since the two major parties usually won far more seats than their share of the overall vote.[6]
Over the years, a number of third parties or so-called minor parties developed, notably the Social Credit Party, the New Zealand Party, the Values Party, and the Alliance.[7] However, the FPP electoral system meant that regardless of how many votes a party gained nationwide, it could not win a seat without a plurality in a particular electorate.[6] For example, the Social Credit Party won over 11% of the votes cast in the 1954 election but did not have a plurality in any electorate so won no seats. Similarly, in the 1984 election, the New Zealand Party received over 12% of the votes cast but also won no seats.[8] Under such conditions, minor parties mostly performed poorly in terms of making an impact in Parliament.
In 1993, the Electoral Act 1993 was passed, introducing the mixed-member proportional (MMP) electoral system for the 1996 election. Now, voters cast both a party vote and an electorate vote. Any party that won at least 5% of the party vote entered Parliament, and candidates could still enter through the previous electorate pathway.[9] This made it much easier for smaller parties to enter Parliament, but more difficult to gain elected as a non-party independent.[citation needed]
In the late 1990s a trend originated in New Zealand's multi-party system in which MPs sitting in Parliament increasingly switched parties (or formed breakway parties), known as "waka-jumping". This is now disallowed to maintain the integrity of the party-based proportional representation.[10]
Registration of parties
[edit]Political parties in New Zealand can be either registered or unregistered.[b] Registered parties must have five hundred paying members, each eligible to vote in general elections, and party membership rules.[11]
If a party registers, it may submit a party list, enabling it to receive party votes in New Zealand's MMP electoral system. Unregistered parties can only nominate candidates for individual electorates.[12]
As of 2020[update], registered political parties are also entitled to spend up to $1,169,000 during the campaign for the party vote and $27,500 per electorate seat. Unregistered entities are entitled to spend up to $330,000 on general election advertising.[13]
Current parties
[edit]Parties represented in Parliament
[edit]There are six parliamentary parties in the 54th New Zealand Parliament.[14] The default order of this list corresponds to the number of MPs they currently have.[15]
| Party | Leader(s) | Founded | Represented | Position | Ideology | Seats | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| National Party | Christopher Luxon | 1936 | 1936–present | Centre-right | Conservatism Liberalism |
49 / 123
| |
| Labour Party | Chris Hipkins | 1916 | 1916–present | Centre-left | Social democracy | 34 / 123
| |
| Green Party | Marama Davidson and Chlöe Swarbrick | 1990 | 1997–present | Centre-left to left-wing | Green politics Social democracy |
15 / 123
| |
| ACT | David Seymour | 1994 | 1996–present | Right-wing | Classical liberalism Conservatism Right-libertarianism |
11 / 123
| |
| New Zealand First | Winston Peters | 1993 | 1993–2008 2011–2020 2023–present |
Right-wing | Right-wing populism Nationalism Social conservatism |
8 / 123
| |
| Te Pāti Māori | Rawiri Waititi and Debbie Ngarewa-Packer | 2004 | 2004–2017 2020–present |
Left-wing[16] | Māori rights Tino rangatiratanga |
6 / 123
| |
Registered parties outside Parliament
[edit]Parties listed in alphabetical order:[17]
| Party | Leader(s) | Founded | Position | Ideology | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animal Justice Party | 2022 | Single issue | Animal rights | ||
| Aotearoa Legalise Cannabis Party | Maki Herbert and Michael Appleby | 1996 | Single issue | Cannabis legalisation | |
| New Conservatives | Helen Houghton | 2011 | Right-wing | Conservatism, social conservatism, right-wing populism | |
| NewZeal | Alfred Ngaro | 2020 | Right-wing | Christian fundamentalism, social conservatism | |
| NZ Outdoors & Freedom Party | Sue Grey and Donna Pokere-Phillips | 2015 | Syncretic | Anti-vaccination, anti-lockdown, environmentalism | |
| The Opportunities Party (TOP) | 2016 | Radical centre | Radical centrism | ||
| Vision NZ | Hannah Tamaki | 2019 | Far-right | Christian nationalism, right-wing populism | |
| Women's Rights Party | Jill Ovens and Chimene Del La Veras | 2023 | Single issue | Anti-transgender sentiment | |
Unregistered parties
[edit]An accurate list of active unregistered parties can be difficult to determine. Any person may announce a political party, but these parties may or may not gain followers, receive any media coverage or go on to contest an election. It can also be difficult to determine when parties have ceased operating or moved away from politics.
The list below lists active and notable parties.
When a candidate stands for parliament in an electorate, they may describe themselves as 'independent' or give a party name. A candidate listing a party name is not necessarily an indication that the party exists beyond that single candidate. In the 2023 general election, single candidates stood under the party names of Economic Euthenics, Future Youth, the Human Rights Party, the New World Order McCann Party, the New Zealand Sovereignty Party, the Northland Party, and the Republic of New Zealand Party. Two candidates stood under each of Not A Party (NAP), Protect & Prosper New Zealand Party, and Workers Now.[22]
Historical parties
[edit]Parties that held seats
[edit]| Party | Founded | Disbanded | In Parliament | Description | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Liberal Party | 1891 | 1927 | 1891–1927 | New Zealand's first political party. It provided the country with a number of prominent Prime Ministers, including John Ballance and Richard Seddon. With much of its traditional support undercut by the growing Labour Party, the remnants of the Liberals (known as the United Party) eventually merged with the Reform Party to form the modern National Party. | |
| New Liberal Party | 1905 | 1908 | 1905–1908 | A party formed by Liberal Party dissidents. Its members were opposed to Liberal leader, Richard Seddon, seeing him as an autocrat. The party proposed a more "progressive" policy seeing the current Liberal policy as too cautious and orthodox. The New Liberals lost much support after the infamous "voucher incident", leaving them discredited. | |
| Independent Political Labour League | 1905 | 1910 | 1908–1910 | A small and short-lived left-wing party. It was the third organised party to win a seat in Parliament, with David McLaren winning the seat of Wellington East. In Parliament, the IPLL co-operated with the governing Liberal Party. | |
| Reform Party | 1909 | 1936 | 1909–1936 | New Zealand's second major political party, established as a more conservative opponent to the Liberal Party. Its founder, William Massey, became its most prominent leader. It eventually merged with one of its former rivals, United, to form the modern National Party. | |
| Labour Party (original) | 1910 | 1912 | 1910–1912 | A short-lived successor to the Independent Political Labour League. It functioned as one of the more moderate workers' parties, opposing more radical groups like the Socialist Party. It should not be confused with the modern Labour Party, although a certain degree of continuity links the two. | |
| United Labour Party | 1912 | 1916 | 1912–1916 | A reformed continuation of the original Labour Party. The party existed only a short time before merging with the Socialist Party to form the Social Democratic Party, although a faction rejected the new SDP as too extreme and continued on under the United Labour Party banner eventually likewise merging in 1916. | |
| Social Democratic Party | 1913 | 1922 | 1913–1916 | An early left-wing party established at a "Unity Congress" in July 1913 as an attempt to bring together the various labour groups of the time. The party eventually amalgamated with the modern Labour Party. | |
| Country Party | 1922 | 1938 | 1928–1938 | A party established by members of the Farmers' Union to promote the interests of the rural sector. It reflected to an extent social credit monetary theory, and believed that farmers were not treated fairly by banks and the corporate world. | |
| United Party | 1927 | 1936 | 1927–1936 | A party formed from the remnants of the Liberal Party. United governed between 1928 and 1935, initially with Labour support and later in coalition with the Reform Party. It eventually merged with Reform to establish the modern National Party. | |
| Democratic Labour Party | 1940 | 1949 | 1940–1943 | A splinter from the Labour Party led by dissident MP John A. Lee. Lee, a socialist and social creditist, believed that the Labour Party had moved too far from its left-wing roots. The Labour Party hierarchy had expelled him after he repeatedly criticised its leadership. | |
| Social Credit Party | 1953 | 2023 | 1954–1987 | The New Zealand Social Credit Party (sometimes called "Socred") was a political party that was New Zealand's third party from the 1950s to the 1980s. It was elected to the New Zealand House of Representatives, holding one seat at times between 1966 and 1981, and two seats from 1981 to 1987. | |
| NewLabour Party | 1989 | 2000 | 1989–1991 | A left-wing party established by former Labour MP Jim Anderton. It contested one election before joining with several other parties to establish the Alliance. | |
| Christian Heritage NZ | 1990 | 2006 | 1999 | A party that advocates Christian conservative values. It supported policies to strengthen marriage and opposed abortion and same-sex unions. | |
| Alliance | 1991 | 2015 | 1991–2002 | A left-wing party supporting the welfare state, free education, environmental protection, and Māori interests. The Progressive Party formed as a splinter group from the Alliance when Jim Anderton, former Alliance leader, left. | |
| Liberal Party | 1991 | 1998 | 1991-1992 | A short-lived splinter from the National Party, formed by Hamish McIntyre and Gilbert Myles, two dissident National MPs who disagreed with the economic policies of Ruth Richardson. The Liberal Party quickly joined the Alliance, which the two saw as the principal opponent of Richardson and her ideological allies. | |
| New Zealand Conservative Party | 1994 | 1996 | 1994–1996 | Initially called the Right of Centre Party, it was founded by breakaway National MP, Ross Meurant. After the general election of 1996, the remnants of the party amalgamated with the United Party. | |
| Future New Zealand | 1994 | 1995 | 1994–1995 | A short-lived party established by Peter Dunne after he left the Labour Party. It integrated into the United New Zealand party. Not to be confused with a later party of the same name. | |
| Christian Democrats | 1995 | 1998 | 1995–1996 | A Christian party established by sitting National MP Graeme Lee. After briefly establishing the Christian Coalition (see above) with the Christian Heritage Party, the Christian Democrats secularised themselves, adopting the name "Future New Zealand". Future New Zealand merged with United (see below) to form United Future New Zealand. | |
| United New Zealand | 1995 | 2000 | 1995–2000 | A centrist party established by moderate MPs from both National and Labour. The party did not achieve electoral success, with only one of the seven founding MPs managing to remain in Parliament. United later merged with the Future New Zealand party to form the modern United Future New Zealand. | |
| Mana Wahine Te Ira Tangata | 1998 | 2001 | 1998–1999 | A short-lived Māori feminist party established by Alliance (Mana Motuhake) defector Alamein Kopu. The party contested only one general election before vanishing. | |
| Mauri Pacific | 1999 | 2001 | 1999 | A party established by several New Zealand First MPs shortly after a coalition between New Zealand First and the National Party broke down. Mauri Pacific remained allied to the National government, giving it crucial support, but none of the party's MPs gained re-election in the 1999 election. | |
| United Future | 2000 | 2017 | 2000–2017 | A centrist party, originally with a strong Christian background: it described its platform as "common sense". It had a particular focus on policies concerning the family and social issues. | |
| Progressive Party | 2002 | 2012 | 2002–2011 | A left-wing party with a focus on job creation and regional development, formed by Jim Anderton after his split from the Alliance. | |
| Pacific Party | 2008 | 2010 | 2008 | A small party established by Taito Phillip Field aimed at advancing Pacific Peoples, as well as Christian and family values and social justice. | |
| Mana Movement | 2011 | 2021 | 2011-2014 | A Māori rights party formed in 2011 by Hone Harawira after he resigned from the Māori Party. | |
| NZ Independent Coalition | 2014 | 2016 | 2012–2014 | A party emphasising local electorate representation, formed by MP Brendan Horan who became independent from New Zealand First in 2012. | |
Parties that never held seats
[edit]Because New Zealand does not require political parties to be registered, any person can announce a political party, though it may not receive media coverage or contest an election. It can also be difficult to determine when such parties have ceased operating or moved away from politics. The list below is limited to notable parties understood to be no longer operating.
| Party | Founded | Disbanded | Description | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Socialist Party | 1901 | 1913 | One of the more prominent Marxist parties in early New Zealand, strongly associated with the Federation of Labour (the "Red Fed"). It eventually merged with the more moderate United Labour Party to form the Social Democratic Party. | |
| Communist Party | 1929 | 1994 | Probably New Zealand's most prominent and long-lived communist organisation. The party generally pursued hard-line doctrines, successively following Stalin's Soviet Union, Mao Zedong's China, and Enver Hoxha's Albania. In 1993, the party moderated its stance, adopting Trotskyism. It later merged with another party to form the group now known as Socialist Worker. | |
| New Zealand Legion | 1930 | 1934? | A short-lived crypto-fascist political movement advocating conservative political reform and opposition to party politics and state bureaucracy. It was associated with John Ormond and later Robert Campbell Begg and did not see itself as a political party. | |
| World Socialist Party | 1930 | 1996 | A party established by former members of the New Zealand Marxian Association, a Marxist group. Its founders created it as an alternative to the mainstream labour movement, claiming that the Labour Party had moved too far from its left-wing roots. The World Socialist Party was rebranded from its founding name; the Socialist Party. | |
| Democrat Party | 1934 | 1936 | A party established to promote the interests of the commercial sector and to oppose "socialist" legislation. The party contested the 1935 election, but failed to win any seats. Ironically, the votes which the Democrats took from the governing coalition may have assisted the victory of the left-wing Labour Party that year. The Democrat Party should not be confused with the modern Democratic Party. | |
| Liberal Party | c. 1938 | c. 1949 | A centrist anti-socialist liberal party formed ahead of the 1938 election but withdrew its candidates. Mostly inactive during World War II, it was briefly revived in the late 1940s. | |
| People's Movement | 1940 | ? | A right-wing organisation which supported reductions in the size of government and a reform of the party system. It was a strong supporter of individualism, saying that the government of the time was advocating the subordination of the individual to the state. | |
| Real Democracy Movement | 1942 | ? | A Social Credit theory based party which advocated economic security combined with individual liberty. It also advocated that all returned servicemen should be paid the average wage until they were re-integrated into civil employment. | |
| Co-operative Party | 1942 | 1943? | A short-lived party established by Albert Davy, a prominent anti-socialist political organiser. It was primarily a breakaway from the larger People's Movement, and Davy rejoined the Movement the year after the Co-operative Party was established. | |
| New Zealand Liberal Federation | 1956 | 1958? | A party formed by ex-National and Social Credit candidates who wished to revive "Seddon liberalism" via a third party. | |
| Liberal Party | 1962 | ? | A party which campaigned in the 1963 election on a platform of reducing the size of the government, introducing a written constitution, and restoring the upper house of Parliament. | |
| Democratic Progress Party | 1966 | c. 1968 | Founded as the Democratic Party ahead of the 1966 election, the party was centrist with policies emphasizing individual freedoms. In 1967 the Progress Party was formed but merged with the Democratic Party one week later becoming known as the Democratic Progress Party. | |
| Socialist Unity Party | 1966 | ? | A splinter group of the Communist Party (see above). It was formed by Communist Party members who rejected their party's decision to take China's side in the Sino-Soviet split. The Socialist Unity Party became one of the more prominent communist parties in New Zealand. | |
| Republican Party | 1967 | 1974 | A party established to promote the creation of a New Zealand Republic. It was founded by left-wing activist Bruce Jesson, and was the product of the Republican Association, an anti-royal protest group founded by Jesson in 1966. | |
| National Front | 1968 | ? | A far-right, ultranationalist and white nationalist organisation.[23] It acted as a political party around the 2000s. | |
| Liberal Reform Party | 1968 | 1972? | A party initially launched as a revival of the decades earlier Country Party by the New Zealand Free Enterprise Movement in 1968 it was renamed the Liberal Reform Party in 1970 after failure at the 1969 election and contested the 1972 election under this name. | |
| National Socialist Party | 1969 | ? | A party founded by prominent far-right activist Colin King-Ansell. It is sometimes considered the first noteworthy far-right party in New Zealand. | |
| Communist League | 1969 | ? | Communism, Marxism-Leninism | |
| Values Party | 1972 | 1990 | Sometimes called the world's first national-level green party. Elements of the Values Party eventually contributed to the formation of the modern Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand. | |
| New Democratic Party | 1972 | 1973 | A short-lived splinter group of the Social Credit Party, founded by ousted Social Credit leader John O'Brien. It placed fifth in the 1972 election, but failed to win any seats. | |
| Imperial British Conservative Party | 1974 | ? | A joke party founded by Ian Brackenbury Channell, better known as "The Wizard of New Zealand". True to its name, it claimed to support imperialism, British people, and conservatism. | |
| Mana Motuhake | 1979 | 2005 | The most prominent Māori-based party until the creation of the modern Māori Party. Mana Motuhake held a number of seats as part of the Alliance (see above), but most of its support has now been incorporated into the Māori Party. | |
| McGillicuddy Serious Party | 1983 | 1999 | A joke party intended to satirise politics in general. Among other deliberately absurd policies it advocated the "Great Leap Backwards", a project to reverse the Industrial Revolution and to re-establish a medieval way of life. | |
| New Zealand Party | 1983 | 1993 | A party established by property tycoon Bob Jones to promote free market economic policies and liberal social policies. It gained twelve percent of the vote in its first election, but then vanished almost completely. Some regard the modern ACT party as the New Zealand Party's ideological successor, but not everyone accepts this view. | |
| Social Credit-NZ | 1988 | 1993 | A splinter party of Democrat Party, founded by former leader Bruce Beetham, believing the Democrats had abandoned Social Credit policies. It contested the 1990 election, but failed to win any seats. | |
| Socialist Party of Aotearoa | 1990 | ? | Formed in 1990 through a split in the Socialist Unity Party, the party was best known through the influence of its late founder Bill Andersen, a well-known trade unionist who served as president of the Auckland Trades Council, national secretary of the Socialist Unity Party, and president of the National Distribution Union. | |
| Mana Māori Movement | 1993 | 2005? | A party that addresses the concerns of New Zealand's indigenous Māori inhabitants, founded by Eva Rickard, a prominent Māori activist and a former Mana Motuhake candidate. | |
| Natural Law Party | 1993 | 2001? | A party which based its principles on the concept of natural law as promoted by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in his theory of Transcendental Meditation. It drew most of its support from the New Age movement. | |
| Kiwis Against Further Immigration | 1994 | 1998? | An anti-immigration party founded as the New Zealand Defence Movement to contest the 1993 election it changed its name to Kiwis Against Further Immigration in 1994. | |
| Advance New Zealand | 1995 | 1997 | A party that advocated for multiculturalism and the interests of ethnic minorities, with a substantial segment of its membership came from New Zealand's Pasifika communities.[24][25] Advance New Zealand merged into United New Zealand in 1997.[24][25][26] Not to be confused with the unrelated party of the same name founded in 2020. | |
| Libertarianz | 1995 | 2014 | A libertarian party dedicated to laissez-faire capitalism and keeping government as small as possible. | |
| Republican Party | 1995 | 2002 | A party established to promote the creation of a New Zealand Republic. The party contested the 1999 election, but only won 250 votes. Should not be confused with The Republic of New Zealand Party or the Republican Movement of Aotearoa New Zealand. | |
| Progressive Green Party | 1995 | ? | An environmentalist party established in opposition to the generally left-wing policies of the larger Green Party. It contested only one election before vanishing, although many of its members became active in the National Party. | |
| Christian Coalition | 1996 | 1997 | A brief alliance of the Christian Democrats and the Christian Heritage Party. It narrowly missed entering Parliament in the 1996 election, and disbanded shortly afterwards. | |
| Animals First | 1996 | 2000 | A party dedicated to animal rights and animal welfare. It received 0.17% of the vote in 1996[27] and 0.16% of the vote in 1999,[28] deregistered in 2000. | |
| Nga Iwi Morehu Movement | 1996 | 2011 | A small Maori-based party which has been active in a number of elections | |
| Ethnic Minority Party | 1996 | 1997 | A party that addresses the concerns of New Zealand's immigrant community, particularly Chinese and Indians. The popularity of New Zealand First, a party which opposed immigration, was a significant factor in its creation. It merged into United New Zealand, but little trace of it remains today. | |
| Asia Pacific United Party | 1996 | 1999 | A party which attempted to gain support from Asian and Pasifika immigrants. It contested the 1996 election, but has since dissolved. | |
| Green Society | 1996 | 2001 | A small environmentalist party. The Green Society believed that a true green party needed to be focused solely on the environment, and believed that the Green Party (then part of the Alliance) and the Progressive Green Party were both mistaken to take sides in economic and social debates. | |
| Future New Zealand | 1998 | 2002 | A reconfiguration of the former Christian Democrat Party. Future New Zealand retained the same family values principles as the Christian Democrats, but abandoned the explicit religious basis. Future New Zealand merged with United New Zealand to form the modern United Future New Zealand. | |
| South Island Party | ? | 2002 | A regionalist party which called for more autonomy for the South Island, the less populous of New Zealand's two main islands. It drew support predominantly from Otago and Southland. | |
| Aotearoa NZ Youth Party | 1998 | 2011 | A platform for campaigner Robert Terry, who stood for electorate seats four times under this banner. | |
| Freedom Movement | 1999 | ? | A registered party which contested the 1999 general elections, receiving 454 party votes.[29] | |
| NMP | 1999 | 2003 | NMP sought to abolish all political parties, among other policies.[30][non-primary source needed] It contested two elections before disbanding.[31] | |
| Te Tawharau | 1999 | 2007 | A Māori party which split off from the Mana Māori Movement. It lapsed with the formation of the Māori Party. | |
| One New Zealand Party | 1999 | 2006 | A small party modelled on Pauline Hanson's One Nation Party in Australia. It opposes all special policies towards Māori. | |
| People's Choice Party | 1999 | 2002 | A small party which was registered for the 1999 election, but which is currently unregistered. It campaigned against MMP and in favour of reducing the size of Parliament. | |
| Outdoor Recreation NZ | 2001 | 2007 | A party dedicated to promoting the interests of the hunting, fishing, and shooting communities. Outdoor Recreation New Zealand contested the 2005 election under the banner of the United Future party, although the parties did not actually merge. This working arrangement met with disappointing results. | |
| Workers Party | 2002 | 2011 | Formerly known as the Anti-Capitalist Alliance. A coalition of socialists and anti-globalisation activists. | |
| Destiny New Zealand | 2003 | 2007 | A party based in the Destiny Church, a Christian religious organisation. The party mostly campaigned on a family values platform, and strongly opposed legislative changes such as the creation of same-sex civil unions and the legalisation of prostitution. | |
| Residents Action Movement | 2003 | 2010 | A left-wing party aiming to bring together social liberals, community activists, social democrats and left-wing radicals. | |
| WIN Party | 2004 | 2006 | A single-issue party devoted to overturning the recently introduced smoking ban in bars and restaurants. | |
| 99 MP Party | 2005 | 2006 | A party primarily focused on reducing the total number of MPs from 120 to 99. It also believed that all constitutional changes should be put to a referendum. | |
| Direct Democracy Party | 2005 | 2009 | A party which sought to increase the participation of ordinary citizens in the political process. It advocated a system of referendums similar to that used by Switzerland. Not to be confused with another group formed in 2020 that joined Advance New Zealand. | |
| Family Rights Protection Party | 2005 | 2007 | A party established by a group of Pasifika who claim that larger parties are taking the support of Pasifika for granted, and do not do enough to help them. | |
| The Republic of New Zealand Party | 2005 | 2009 | A party focused on establishing a Republic in New Zealand. It also supports the adoption of a written constitution, the holding of referendums on major issues, and the abolition of race-specific government institutions. | |
| Freedom Party | 2005 | 2005 | A party established by two former members of ACT New Zealand. Its policies were intended to be similar to those of ACT, but the party's founders said that the Freedom Party will be more democratic and accountable to its members. | |
| Equal Values Party | 2005 | 2008 | A left-wing party active during the 2005 election. It supported free education and healthcare, an increase to social welfare benefits, and the establishment of compulsory superannuation schemes. | |
| Family Party | 2007 | 2010 | A small Christian party established by the former Destiny New Zealand. | |
| Kiwi Party | 2007 | 2012 | A revival of the Christian Democrats / Future New Zealand brand. The party advocates more representative direct democracy through referendums and a return to the "Judeo-Christian ethic in democracy". | |
| Hapu Party | 2008 | 2008 | A Māori-based party established to challenge the Māori Party. | |
| Bill and Ben Party | 2008 | 2010 | A joke party run by Bill and Ben, hosts of the TV show Pulp Sport. | |
| New World Order Party | 2008 | 2011 | A party promoting global peace through a unified World Government. | |
| Representative Party | 2008 | 2010 | The New Zealand Representative Party was led by Reg Turner, a former candidate for the ACT Party. The party claimed to have no policies, favouring seeking the opinions of voters on issues, and opposed traditional left-right politics.[32] However, it also promoted populist referendums, deregulation, compulsory military service, "stopping the culture for young unmarried women to have babies", and restricting the welfare state.[33] The party ran only a single candidate, Turner, in the 2008 election. By 2010, its website was defunct and it did not run any candidates in the 2011 election. | |
| No Commercial Airport at Whenuapai Airbase Party | 2008 | 2008 | A local party which grew out of the movement opposing a commercial airport at Auckland's Whenuapai airbase. | |
| New Zealand Liberals | 2008 | ? | A small party modelled on the old New Zealand Liberal Party and the UK Liberal Democrats. It advocates constitutional reform, republicanism, and civil rights. | |
| Pirate Party of New Zealand | 2009 | 2017 | A copyright reform party based on the Swedish Pirate Party, with a focus on technological issues, like net neutrality. | |
| New Citizen Party | 2010 | 2012 | A short-lived party formed to represent Chinese New Zealanders. It came third in the 2011 Botany by-election, but dissolved before contesting a general election. | |
| Join Australia Movement Party | 2011 | 2011 | A party advocating union with Australia. | |
| Sovereignty Party | 2011 | ? | A nationalist party which contest the 2011 election. | |
| Reform New Zealand | 2011 | ? | A right-wing party advocating free market economics, low taxation, and reduced government. It was established by dissatisfied members of ACT New Zealand, and advocates similar policies of low taxation, privatisation, and reduced government. It never attempted to register with the New Zealand Electoral Commission and did not stand any candidates. | |
| OurNZ Party | 2011 | 2011 | A party advocating a new currency, binding referendums, and a written constitution. | |
| New Economics Party | 2011 | ? | A party advocating substantial economic reform such as a universal basic income and multiple currencies. It stood a single candidate in one election. | |
| Thrive New Zealand | 2012 | 2013 | Party logo registered in August 2013. Advocated Direct Democracy via an online tool called RealVoice. | |
| Focus NZ | 2012 | 2016 | A party aimed at representing rural New Zealand. | |
| 1Law4All Party | 2013 | 2015 | A party aimed at overturning the Treaty of Waitangi. | |
| Civilian Party | 2013 | 2015 | A joke party which arose from a popular New Zealand satirical website. | |
| Expatriate Party | 2014 | 2014 | A party related to issues facing New Zealanders outside New Zealand. | |
| Ban 1080 Party | 2014 | 2018 | A party that opposed the use of sodium fluoroacetate (1080) poison. | |
| Internet Party | 2014 | 2018 | A party advocating for less surveillance, copyright reform and cheap internet. The Internet Party contested the 2014 general election in an alliance called Internet Party and Mana Movement, and contested the 2017 election on its own. | |
| New Zealand People's Party | 2015 | 2020? | A party with a focus on immigrant rights. It became a component party of Advance New Zealand for the 2020 election. | |
| Sustainable New Zealand Party | 2019 | 2021 | A Green Liberal party founded by former Green and National Member Vernon Tava. Considered to be "teal" or "blue-green" by the Media. | |
| New Zealand Public Party | 2020 | 2021 | A component party of Advance New Zealand.[34] Founded in June 2020 by Billy Te Kahika Jr. At its launch, Te Kahika said that the COVID-19 pandemic would enable globalist leaders to implement UN agendas that would totally control people's lives, and that billionaires had developed weaponised viruses and patented treatments for the viruses they had made, in order to enslave humanity.[35][36][37][38][39] It merged with Advance New Zealand in July 2020.[40] | |
| Integrity Party | 2020 | 2020? | ||
| Advance New Zealand | 2020 | 2021 | A party founded by former National Party MP Jami-Lee Ross. | |
| Attica Project | 2020 | 2025 | Split from the NZ Outdoors & Freedom Party at the 2020 election | |
| New Zealand TEA Party | 2020 | 2022 | A fiscally conservative party. | |
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Mulgan, Richard (1 October 2013). "Party origins and electoral history". Politics in New Zealand. Auckland University Press. p. n.p. ISBN 978-1-86940-677-6. Retrieved 2 October 2024.
- ^ a b c d Curtin, Jennifer; Miller, Raymond (21 July 2015). "The party system develops, 1891 to 1935". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 July 2020.
- ^ Wilson, John (1 April 2020). "Liberal to Labour". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 July 2020.
- ^ a b Daniels, John Richards Sinclair (1966). "United Party". In McLintock, Alexander Hare (ed.). An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand.
- ^ Raymond, Miller (2005). Party Politics in New Zealand. Australia: Oxford University Press. p. 32.
- ^ a b "First past the post". nzhistory.govt.nz. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 13 January 2016. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
- ^ Curtin, Jennifer; Miller, Raymond (21 July 2015). "Political parties". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
- ^ Matthews, Philip (28 April 2021). "1984: Politics and boxing lessons". Stuff. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
- ^ Curtin, Jennifer; Miller, Raymond (21 July 2015). "Small parties under MMP". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 July 2020.
- ^ Martin, John E. (20 June 2012). "Impact of MMP". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 31 August 2023.
- ^ "For starting a political party". Elections.nz. Electoral Commission. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
- ^ "Political parties in New Zealand". Elections.nz. Electoral Commission. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
- ^ "Limits on election-related spending begin - New Zealand Parliament". Parliament.nz. New Zealand Parliament. Archived from the original on 8 July 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
- ^ "Parliamentary parties". New Zealand Parliament. 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
- ^ "2017 General Election - Preliminary Count". Electionresults.govt.nz. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
- ^ "NZ Election 2020: John Tamihere picks unlikely preferred coalition partner for Māori Party". Newshub. Archived from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
- ^ "Register of political parties". elections.nz. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
- ^ Piper, Denise (18 March 2022). "'We stand for democracy': Ex-National MP Matt King launches anti-mandate party". Stuff. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
- ^ "The Democratic Alliance of New Zealand Aoetaoroa". Democratic Alliance. Retrieved 11 April 2025.
- ^ "Government Overreach". Democratic Alliance. Retrieved 11 April 2025.
- ^ Pearse, Adam (4 November 2022). "Hamilton West byelection: Gaurav Sharma claims raid of Labour manpower as new party revealed". New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
Resigned MP Dr Gaurav Sharma claims most of his core campaign team who helped him win the Hamilton West seat in 2020 with Labour, have left to join his new political party, the New Zealand Momentum Party, ahead of the electorate's byelection.
- ^ "Electorate candidates". Vote NZ. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
- ^ "New Zealand National Front Homepage". Nationalfront.org.nz. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
- ^ a b Sheppard, Simon (26 December 1997). "United Party Awaiting Opportunities". Otago Daily Times.
- ^ a b Edwards, Bryce (2002). Political Parties in New Zealand: A Study of Ideological and Organisational Transformation. University of Canterbury.
- ^ Orsman, Bernard (16 July 2002). "The man for whom the worm turned up trumps". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
- ^ "Part I - Summary of Party List and Electorate Candidate Seats". Electoral Commission. 1997. Retrieved 9 January 2017.
- ^ "Summary of Overall Results". Electoral Commission. Retrieved 9 January 2017.
- ^ "Summary of Overall Results". Electoral Commission. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
- ^ "NMP - New Millennium Partnership". Archived from the original on 5 August 2011. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
- ^ "Registration of political party cancelled". Elections.org.nz. 14 March 2003. Archived from the original on 23 April 2003. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
- ^ "Logo no go, Nelson no go, and same goes for 1080". Stuff. 31 January 2009. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
- ^ "NZRP Website". Retrieved 17 September 2008. [dead link]
- ^ "Register of political parties". elections.nz. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
- ^ "New Zealand Public Party kicks off". Māori Television. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
- ^ Mark Peters (10 July 2020). "Global 'plandemic'". Gisborne Herald. Retrieved 10 July 2020.
- ^ "COVID-19 gives Billy TK the UN red flag blues". Waatea News. 9 July 2020. Retrieved 10 July 2020.
- ^ Charlotte Jones (9 July 2020). "Public party preaches to Opotiki". Opotiki News. Retrieved 10 July 2020.
- ^ "Public Party praying for electoral lifeline". Waatea News. 16 July 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
- ^ Thomas Coughlan (26 July 2020). "Jami-Lee Ross looks to Te Tai Tokerau as he plots journey back to Parliament". Stuff. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
Notes
[edit]- ^ Independent (non-partisan) candidates are seldom elected, though MPs may serve as independents after leaving or being expelled from their party.
- ^ Registered with the New Zealand Electoral Commission
External links
[edit]- NZ Political Parties
- Elections New Zealand (more information on the election systems)
List of political parties in New Zealand
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Party System Framework
Electoral System and Its Effects on Parties
New Zealand employs a mixed-member proportional (MMP) electoral system for parliamentary elections, adopted following a 1993 referendum and first implemented in the 1996 general election. Under MMP, voters cast two votes: an electorate vote for a local candidate using first-past-the-post in one of 71 electorates (65 general and 6 Māori as of the 2023 election, subject to boundary adjustments), and a party vote to determine overall party seat allocation. Parliament consists of 120 seats, with electorate winners filling their seats directly, and the remainder allocated from party lists to achieve proportionality based on the national party vote share.[5][6] To qualify for list seats, a party must secure at least 5% of the national party vote or win at least one electorate seat; failure to meet this threshold excludes the party from representation despite any votes received. This mechanism, unchanged since MMP's introduction despite a 2012 review recommending minor adjustments that were not enacted, balances proportionality with barriers against excessive fragmentation. Overhang occurs if a party's electorate wins exceed its proportional entitlement, increasing total seats beyond 120, as happened in 2008 (122 seats) and 2014 (121 seats).[5] The shift from the prior first-past-the-post (FPP) system, which favored the two major parties (National and Labour) and often produced disproportional outcomes—such as Social Credit garnering around 9% of votes from 1954 to 1975 but winning only two seats total—has fostered a multi-party landscape. Pre-MMP parliaments typically featured two effective parties, enabling single-party majorities; post-1996, no party has achieved an absolute majority, necessitating coalitions or confidence-and-supply agreements, as seen in every government since. This has enabled smaller parties like New Zealand First (17 seats in 1996), the Alliance (13 seats in 1996), ACT (entering via list in 2005 and electorate "coat-tailing" in later elections), and the Greens (splintering from Alliance to gain 9 seats in 2002) to secure representation proportional to their vote share, increasing parliamentary parties from two dominant ones to four in 1996 and up to eight in 2008.[7][8][7] MMP incentivizes party formation and survival for niche or regional groups by lowering entry barriers for those crossing the threshold, but the 5% hurdle and electorate "coat-tail" provision—allowing parties below 5% to retain seats if they win an electorate—have spurred strategic alliances and splintering, such as the 1996 Alliance coalition of left-leaning groups or ACT's reliance on Epsom electorate wins since 2005. Critics note that while proportionality has risen (reducing effective number of parties from around 2 under FPP to 4-5 post-MMP), coalitions can prolong government formation and introduce instability, as in the 1996 National-NZ First deal or 2017 Labour-NZ First-Greens arrangement. Larger parties adapt by prioritizing national lists for winnable candidates, while smaller ones focus on targeted electorates or policy niches to mobilize dispersed support.[7][9][7]Registration and Regulatory Requirements
Political parties seeking to contest the party vote in New Zealand's parliamentary elections must register with the Electoral Commission under Part 4A of the Electoral Act 1993.[10] Registration confers eligibility for party logos on ballot papers and access to broadcasting funding allocations during election campaigns, but unregistered groups may still nominate electorate candidates.[11] To qualify, a party must demonstrate at least 500 current financial members who are eligible to enrol as electors, along with a constitution outlining membership rules and processes for democratic candidate selection.[12] Applications require submission of a form detailing the party name (limited to 52 characters and prohibited if misleading or resembling existing parties), officer details (including president and secretary), membership evidence via statutory declarations from members, and a $500 fee.[12][10] The Electoral Commission processes applications, typically within eight weeks, including public consultation on the proposed name and optional logo to ensure distinctiveness and compliance with intellectual property standards.[11][12] Logo registration, if pursued, must occur before the election writ and involves submitting artwork in specified formats without additional fees.[12] Post-registration, parties must submit their full constitution rules within one month for public online publication.[12] Applications are barred during certain election periods to prevent disruptions.[10] Registered parties face ongoing regulatory obligations, primarily enforced through the party secretary, who must maintain membership above 500, authorize election advertisements, and notify the Commission of changes in officers or status.[12] Financial transparency requires annual audited returns of donations and loans, filed by 30 April, with prompt disclosure (within 10 working days) of any single donation or loan exceeding $30,000; records must be retained for three years.[12] Annual statutory declarations confirm compliance with membership and operational rules.[11] Deregistration occurs voluntarily upon request or involuntarily if the party ceases operations, membership drops below 500, or it fails to meet statutory duties, with decisions made by the Electoral Commission Board and updates to the public register.[12][10] The Commission maintains an online register of active parties, ensuring transparency in the multiparty system shaped by mixed-member proportional representation.[3]Current Parties as of October 2025
Parties Holding Seats in Parliament
As of October 2025, six political parties hold seats in the 123-seat House of Representatives of the 54th New Zealand Parliament, elected in October 2023 under the mixed-member proportional (MMP) system.[13] The National Party leads a centre-right coalition government with ACT New Zealand and New Zealand First, commanding 67 seats and forming the executive.[14] The opposition comprises the Labour Party, Green Party, and Te Pāti Māori, with 56 seats collectively. No significant changes to party seat totals have occurred since the election, aside from minor by-elections and replacements for resignations, such as the Green Party's substitution following Golriz Ghahraman's departure in January 2024.[15]| Party | Seats | Leader(s) | Ideological Orientation |
|---|---|---|---|
| National Party | 48 | Christopher Luxon | Centre-right, liberal conservatism |
| Labour Party | 34 | Chris Hipkins | Centre-left, social democracy[16] |
| Green Party | 15 | Chlöe Swarbrick, Marama Davidson (co-leaders) | Left-wing, environmentalism and social justice |
| ACT New Zealand | 11 | David Seymour | Classical liberalism, libertarianism |
| New Zealand First | 8 | Winston Peters | Populism, economic nationalism |
| Te Pāti Māori | 6 | Rawiri Waititi | Māori nationalism, indigenous rights |
Registered Parties Without Parliamentary Representation
The following political parties are registered with the Electoral Commission of New Zealand as of October 2025 but hold no seats in the 54th Parliament.[3][4] Registration enables these parties to contest the party vote in general elections and appear on the ballot with their logos, provided they meet ongoing compliance requirements such as filing annual financial returns.[3] None crossed the 5% threshold or won electorate seats in the 2023 general election, resulting in zero parliamentary representation.[17]| Party Name | Registration Date | Key Focus Areas (Based on Party Statements) |
|---|---|---|
| Animal Justice Party Aotearoa New Zealand | 16 August 2023 | Animal welfare, environmental protection, and ethical treatment in policy.[3] |
| Aotearoa Legalise Cannabis Party | 30 May 1996 | Cannabis law reform, drug policy liberalization, and related health initiatives.[3] |
| New Conservatives | 6 October 2011 | Conservative values, family policy, and opposition to certain social reforms.[3] |
| NewZeal | 9 July 2020 | Centrist positioning with emphasis on practical governance and economic stability.[3] |
| New Zealand Outdoors Party (formerly NZ Outdoors & Freedom Party) | 11 August 2017 | Rural interests, hunting rights, conservation, and personal freedoms.[3] |
| The Opportunities Party (TOP) | 6 March 2017 | Evidence-based policy, innovation, and addressing intergenerational equity.[3] |
| Vision New Zealand | 4 December 2019 | Christian values, family support, and moral governance principles.[3] |
| Women's Rights Party | 28 August 2023 | Women's issues, sex-based rights, and critique of gender ideology in law.[3] |
Recently Deregistered or Unregistered Parties
The New Nation Party had its registration and logo cancelled by the Electoral Commission on 29 January 2025, at the request of the party, following its failure to secure parliamentary representation in the 2023 general election.[19] Freedoms New Zealand, an alliance of minor parties including the Outdoors Party, New Conservative Party, and Vision NZ, had its registration and logo cancelled on 2 May 2025, also at the party's request, after receiving less than 1% of the party vote in 2023.[18] The New Zealand Loyal party, established in 2023 by former broadcaster Liz Gunn and focused on sovereignty and health freedom issues, requested and received cancellation of its registration and logo on 29 July 2024 from the Electoral Commission, shortly after polling below the 5% threshold in the previous election.[20] Advance New Zealand, formed in 2020 by Jami-Lee Ross and Billy Te Kahika amid controversies over COVID-19 policies and donations, announced its intent to deregister in July 2021 and had its registration officially removed on 19 August 2021, citing low electoral support where it garnered 0.19% of the party vote.[21]| Party Name | Deregistration Date | Reason for Deregistration |
|---|---|---|
| Advance New Zealand | 19 August 2021 | Party request following poor 2020 election performance |
| New Zealand Loyal | 29 July 2024 | Party request after failing 5% threshold in 2023 |
| Freedoms New Zealand | 2 May 2025 | Party request due to minimal 2023 vote share |
| New Nation Party | 29 January 2025 | Party request post-2023 election results |
Historical Parties
Parties That Achieved Parliamentary Representation
The New Zealand Liberal Party, established in the late 1890s, was the country's first organised political party and achieved parliamentary representation starting with the 1890 general election, forming the government from 1891 to 1912 with majorities in subsequent parliaments until its decline in the 1920s.[23] It held a dominant position in early parliaments, enacting reforms such as women's suffrage in 1893, before fragmenting into smaller groups that contested elections as late as 1925 without regaining power.[24] The Reform Party, founded in 1909 as a conservative alternative to the Liberals, secured seats in the 1911 election and governed from 1912 to 1928, often in coalition after 1928, before merging with remnants of the United Party to form the National Party in 1936.[23] It represented rural and business interests, winning 37 seats in the 1914 election and maintaining representation through the 1935 election with 19 seats.[23] The Social Credit Party, originating as the Social Credit League in the 1950s, first entered Parliament in 1966 with one seat held by Tom McLean until 1978, followed by another single seat from 1978 to 1981, and then two seats from the 1981 election until 1987.[25] The party advocated monetary reform and peaked at 21% of the vote in 1972 without additional seats under the first-past-the-post system, before renaming to the Democratic Party in 1988 and losing all representation by 1990.[26] NewLabour, formed in 1989 by dissidents from the Labour Party led by Jim Anderton, won one parliamentary seat in the 1990 election through Anderton's victory in Sydenham, marking the first minor party seat under FPP since the 1930s.[27] It merged into the Alliance in 1991, ending its independent representation. The Alliance, established in 1991 as a coalition of left-wing groups including NewLabour, former Social Credit elements, the Greens, and Mana Motuhake, secured two seats in the 1993 election and expanded to 13 seats in the inaugural MMP election of 1996, supporting the Labour-led government until internal splits reduced its representation to zero by 2003.[28] United Future New Zealand, formed in 2000 from the merger of United New Zealand and the Future party, entered Parliament with 13 seats in the 2002 MMP election and maintained one or two seats through 2014, serving as a coalition partner to Labour from 2002 to 2005 and gaining confidence-and-supply support roles until losing its final seat in 2017.[29] The party deregistered in 2018 after failing to meet threshold requirements.[27]Parties That Never Won Seats
The Values Party, established in 1972 as New Zealand's inaugural national environmentalist political organization, contested general elections from 1972 to 1987 but secured no parliamentary seats despite achieving its highest support of 5.2% of the national vote in the 1975 election under the first-past-the-post system.[30][24] The party emphasized sustainable development, resource conservation, and opposition to rapid industrialization, influencing later environmental policy discourse without translating voter support into representation due to the electoral system's bias toward major parties.[31] It disbanded in 1990, with elements merging into emerging green movements.[32] The New Zealand Party, founded in March 1983 by property developer Bob Jones as a libertarian-leaning alternative to the National Party, polled 12.2% in the July 1984 snap election—its only major contest—but won zero seats, fragmenting conservative votes and contributing to Labour's narrow victory.[24][33] Advocating deregulation, low taxes, and reduced government intervention, the party dissolved by 1993 after failing to sustain momentum in subsequent elections.[34] The Christian Democrat Party, formed in 1995 to represent socially conservative Christian values including family policy and opposition to abortion and euthanasia, entered the 1996 election under the newly introduced mixed-member proportional system with 0.15% of the party vote and no electorate or list seats.[35] It did not contest further national elections and deregistered without achieving representation.[36] Satirical outfits like the McGillicuddy Serious Party, operational from 1984 to 1999, fielded candidates across multiple elections promoting outlandish policies such as topiary and compulsory fun but garnered negligible votes and zero seats, serving primarily to critique political seriousness rather than seek governance.[37][38] Other ephemeral minor parties, such as the Imperial British Conservative Party and various single-issue groups, similarly failed to win seats across the 20th century, highlighting the structural barriers of New Zealand's pre-MMP electoral framework that favored duopoly dominance by Labour and National.[39]Key Shifts and Dissolutions in Party Evolution
The Reform Party, established in 1909 as a conservative opposition to the Liberal government, assumed power in 1912 and governed until 1928, after which it entered a coalition with the United Party—a successor to the declining Liberal Party of the 1890s—in 1931 to counter Labour's growing influence.[40] This coalition formalized into the New Zealand National Party through their merger on 8 November 1936, marking the consolidation of non-Labour forces and ushering in a dominant two-party system alongside Labour, which had formed in 1916 from social democratic roots.[41][42] The Reform and United parties effectively dissolved upon this merger, ending their independent existence, while the original Liberal Party had fragmented by the 1920s, with its remnants absorbed into United without formal dissolution but ceasing as a distinct entity.[41] These shifts reflected pragmatic responses to electoral pressures under the first-past-the-post system, prioritizing broader coalitions over ideological purity to challenge Labour's unified organization. The 1993 referendum adopting mixed-member proportional (MMP) representation for the 1996 election represented a pivotal systemic shift, fragmenting the party landscape by lowering barriers for minor parties to gain seats via the 5% national threshold or electorate wins, thus diminishing two-party dominance and necessitating coalitions.[6][43] From 1996 to 2017, no party secured a parliamentary majority, fostering mergers like United Future's 2000 formation from the United Party and Future New Zealand, alongside dissolutions of entities unable to sustain voter support or registration under MMP's demands for ongoing activity and compliance with Electoral Commission rules.[43] MMP also accelerated splits and declines; for instance, New Zealand First, founded in 1993, faced internal fractures in 1998 when coalition tensions with National led to half its caucus departing, though the party persisted.[44] Smaller formations, such as the 1983 New Zealand Party led by Bob Jones, influenced subsequent conservative offshoots like ACT New Zealand (1994) without achieving seats themselves, highlighting how transient vehicles could catalyze ideological realignments rather than enduring structures. Overall, post-MMP evolution has seen heightened volatility, with parties dissolving or deregistering due to electoral failure—often after breaching thresholds—while survivors adapt through targeted mergers to navigate coalition arithmetic.[2]Broader Trends and Analyses
Impact of MMP on Party Fragmentation
The adoption of mixed-member proportional (MMP) representation in New Zealand's 1996 general election, following a 1993 referendum where 53.9% of voters endorsed the change over first-past-the-post (FPP), fundamentally altered the incentives for party formation and survival. Under FPP, which had prevailed since 1853, the electoral system disproportionately rewarded broad-based parties capable of securing pluralities in single-member electorates, resulting in a de facto two-party system dominated by the National and Labour parties; minor parties like Social Credit achieved only fleeting representation, such as two seats in 1981, while the effective number of legislative parties hovered around 2. MMP's dual-vote mechanism—one for local electorates and one for party lists—combined with a 5% national party vote threshold or the alternative of winning at least one electorate seat, enabled smaller parties to secure proportional list seats, thereby reducing barriers to entry and encouraging ideological splintering from major parties.[6][45] This structural shift directly fostered greater party fragmentation, as evidenced by the proliferation of parliamentary parties post-1996. Prior to MMP, parliaments typically featured 2 parties holding all seats; after implementation, the number rose to an average of 5–6 parties per election through 2023, with no single party attaining a majority. For instance, the 1996 election seated five parties (National, Labour, New Zealand First, Alliance, ACT), while 2005 saw seven, including the newly formed Māori Party. The effective number of parties, a standard measure accounting for seat shares, increased from approximately 2 under FPP to 3.5–4.5 under MMP, reflecting broader representation of niche interests like environmentalism (Greens splitting from Alliance in 1999) and libertarianism (ACT from National dissidents).[43][46]| Election Year | System | Parties in Parliament | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1993 | FPP | 2 | National majority; Labour opposition.[45] |
| 1996 | MMP | 5 | Coalition required; overhang seats.[43] |
| 2002 | MMP | 6 | Progressive, United Future minor roles. |
| 2005 | MMP | 7 | Māori Party enters via electorate win. |
| 2017 | MMP | 6 | Labour-NZ First-Green coalition. |
| 2023 | MMP | 6 | National-ACT-NZ First government.[4] |
Ideological Alignments and Policy Influences
New Zealand's political parties exhibit ideological alignments that reflect a mix of social democracy, liberalism, conservatism, libertarianism, populism, environmentalism, and indigenous advocacy, often moderated by the necessities of coalition governance under the mixed-member proportional (MMP) system adopted in 1996.[47] The Labour Party positions itself as centre-left, prioritizing economic redistribution, public sector expansion, and social equity, as evidenced by its 2017–2023 government's implementation of policies like the Zero Carbon Act and increased minimum wages.[48] In contrast, the National Party aligns with centre-right conservatism, emphasizing fiscal responsibility, private enterprise, and law enforcement, which shaped its pre-1996 dominance and post-2023 coalition focus on tax cuts and regulatory rollbacks.[49] Minor parties exert significant policy influence disproportionate to their parliamentary seats due to MMP's requirement for coalition majorities, with no single party securing over 50% of seats since 1996.[47] The libertarian-leaning ACT Party, for instance, secured commitments in the 2023 National-ACT coalition agreement to review the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi, prohibit gang patches in public, and advance school choice reforms, reflecting its emphasis on individual liberties and market deregulation.[50] Similarly, New Zealand First's populist-nationalist stance influenced the same coalition by mandating referenda on co-governance arrangements and Treaty principles, alongside stricter immigration controls and regional infrastructure funding, as outlined in its agreement with National.[51] The Green Party's eco-socialist alignment drives environmental and welfare priorities, notably contributing to the 2019 Zero Carbon Act during its confidence-and-supply role with Labour, though its influence wanes outside left-leaning coalitions.[48] Te Pāti Māori, rooted in indigenous sovereignty and left-wing economics, has shaped policies on Māori health and land rights, such as through its opposition role post-2023, amplifying debates on Treaty interpretations.[52] These dynamics illustrate causal effects of MMP: ideological fragmentation enables targeted policy concessions, but also fosters instability, as seen in pre-election pacts excluding certain partners, which can limit government formation options.[44]| Party | Core Ideology | Notable Policy Wins via Coalitions (Post-1996) |
|---|---|---|
| Labour | Social democracy (centre-left) | Welfare expansions, climate legislation (2017–2023)[48] |
| National | Liberal conservatism (centre-right) | Tax relief, deregulation (2023–present)[49] |
| ACT | Libertarianism/classical liberalism (right) | Treaty review, gang law reforms (2023 agreement)[50] |
| New Zealand First | Populism/nationalism (right-leaning) | Immigration curbs, co-governance referendum (2023 agreement)[51] |
| Greens | Green socialism (left) | Emissions targets (2019 Act via supply agreement)[48] |
| Te Pāti Māori | Indigenous advocacy (left-leaning) | Māori-specific health initiatives (opposition advocacy)[52] |