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Styphnolobium japonicum
Styphnolobium japonicum
Styphnolobium japonicum
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Styphnolobium japonicum
Styphnolobium japonicum tree
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Genus: Styphnolobium
Species:
S. japonicum
Binomial name
Styphnolobium japonicum
Synonyms

Styphnolobium japonicum, the Japanese pagoda tree[3] (also known as the Chinese scholar tree and pagoda tree; syn. Sophora japonica) is a species of deciduous tree in the subfamily Faboideae of the pea family Fabaceae.

It was formerly included within a broader interpretation of the genus Sophora. The species of Styphnolobium differ from Sophora in lacking the ability to form symbioses with rhizobia (nitrogen fixing bacteria) on their roots. It also differs from the related genus Calia (mescalbeans) in having deciduous leaves and flowers in axillary, not terminal, racemes. The leaves are alternate, pinnate, with nine to 21 leaflets, and the flowers in pendulous racemes similar to those of the black locust.

Distribution

[edit]
foliage and inflorescence
close-up of flowers

Styphnolobium japonicum is native to China. Despite its Latin name, the species was introduced in Japan and not originally found there. It is a popular ornamental tree in Europe, North America and South Africa, grown for its white flowers, borne in late summer after most other flowering trees have long finished flowering. It grows to 10–20 m tall with an equal spread, and produces a fine, dark brown timber.[citation needed]

Uses

[edit]

History

[edit]

Despite its name, the Chinese scholar tree was not the official memorial tree of higher officials in Zhou dynasty China. The tombs of scholars were instead decorated with Koelreuteria paniculata.[4]

The Guilty Chinese Scholartree is a historic pagoda tree in Beijing, from which the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, Chongzhen, hanged himself in 1644.[5]

Traditional medicine

[edit]
the beans

S. japonicum (Chinese: 槐; pinyin: huái; formerly Sophora japonica) is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine. Its fruits have stress resistance and antioxidant properties.[6]

Tea

[edit]

The flowers and leaves are sometimes used for teas, such as by families in Laoshan Village, Shandong Province, China. It counts as a variety of herbal tea.[citation needed]

Construction uses

[edit]

The wood is used to make the strong, springy curved "enju wood" handle used on the traditional Japanese woodworking adze, called the chouna.[7][8] Pagoda wood is very hard after drying. This makes pagoda products durable and long lasting. The pagoda tree trunk is generally composed of alternating ridges of light-brown outside layers and gray brown inside layers. This makes wood carving products, for example from the Hokkaido native Ainu people, very decorative. The Ainu are famous for their carvings of the Blakiston's fish owl.

Chemistry

[edit]

The dried flower buds may contain as much as 20% rutin with some quercetin.[9] S. japonicum dried fruit contains the flavonoid glycosides sophoricoside, genistin and rutin and the flavonoid aglycones genistein, quercetin and kaempferol.[10] Another analysis found genistein and genistein glycosides including sophorabioside, sophoricoside, genistein-7-diglucoside, genistein-7-diglucorhamnoside, and kaempferol and the kaempferol glycosides kaempferol-3-sophoroside and kaempferol-3-rhamnodiglucoside.[9] The fruit also contain the alkaloids cytisine, N-methylcytisine, sophocarpine, matrine and stizolamine.[11] The bark contains the allomatrine alkaloid.[12]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Styphnolobium japonicum

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from Grokipedia
_Styphnolobium japonicum, commonly known as the tree or Chinese tree, is a tree in the family native to central and southern as well as Korea. It typically reaches heights of 15–25 meters with a rounded crown, featuring alternate, pinnately compound leaves consisting of 7–17 ovate leaflets, showy panicles of creamy white, pea-like flowers in late summer, and elongated, necklace-like pods that persist into winter. Despite its common names, the species is not native to , where it was likely introduced and naturalized centuries ago, leading to widespread cultivation across and beyond. Hardy to USDA Zone 4, it thrives in full sun to partial shade on well-drained, loamy soils, exhibiting tolerance to heat, drought, urban pollution, and compaction, which has made it a popular choice for ornamental planting in parks, streets, and landscapes worldwide. Flowering usually begins after 10–20 years, peaking at 30–40 years old, with fragrant blooms appearing in – that attract pollinators and give way to indehiscent pods containing 1–8 toxic seeds. The tree holds significant cultural, medicinal, and economic value; its flower buds have been used in traditional Chinese medicine as an astringent and hemostatic agent, while the wood provides durable timber for furniture and construction. Young leaves and flowers are edible in moderation, and the pods yield a yellow dye for textiles like silk and batik. However, it can become invasive in some regions, such as the mid-Atlantic United States, where it forms thickets and outcompetes native species. Formerly classified as Sophora japonica, its reclassification to Styphnolobium reflects phylogenetic studies separating it from the genus Sophora.

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Etymology and common names

The scientific name Styphnolobium japonicum combines the Greek roots styphnos, meaning or sour, and lobos, meaning pod, alluding to the astringent pulp found in the tree's seed pods. The specific epithet japonicum derives from Latin, indicating "of ," though the species is native to and was initially described from cultivated specimens in Japan brought from . Historically known as Sophora japonica, the species was transferred to the genus Styphnolobium in 1830, though it continued to be classified under Sophora until phylogenetic studies in the late 1990s distinguished it from the broader Sophora genus based on morphological, phytochemical, and DNA evidence. Common names for S. japonicum reflect its cultural and ornamental roles across regions. In English, it is widely called the Japanese pagoda tree, a name inspired by its distinctive tiered branching that resembles the multi-roofed structure of a pagoda, as well as its frequent planting around Buddhist temples for shade and fragrance. Another English name, Chinese scholar tree, originates from ancient Chinese traditions where the tree was planted near homes or schools to bring good fortune and success to students preparing for imperial examinations, symbolizing wisdom and scholarly achievement. In China, it is known as huai shu (槐树), underscoring its longstanding significance in traditional landscapes and folklore. The scientific name is pronounced approximately as /ˌstɪf.nəˈloʊ.bi.əm dʒəˈpɑː.nɪ.kəm/ (stif-nuh-LOH-bee-um juh-PON-ih-kuhm).

Classification and synonyms

Styphnolobium japonicum belongs to the family , subfamily , and tribe Sophoreae. The species was originally described as Sophora japonica by in 1767, based on specimens cultivated in but native to . In 1829, Friedrich Schott transferred it to the newly established genus Styphnolobium, distinguishing it from based on morphological traits such as the absence of root nodules for , stipel structure, and pod characteristics. Molecular phylogenetic analyses, particularly using plastid matK gene sequences, have confirmed Styphnolobium as a monophyletic basal to the papilionoid , separate from the predominantly New World Sophora sensu stricto. These studies highlight genetic divergence, supporting the generic separation and revealing Styphnolobium species as early-diverging members of the subfamily. Key synonyms include Sophora japonica L. (the basionym) and Sophora sinensis Forrest. Intraspecific variants encompass forms such as Styphnolobium japonicum f. columnare (a columnar growth form) and var. pendulum (a weeping cultivar).

Description

Growth habit and morphology

Styphnolobium japonicum is a that grows to heights of 15–25 meters, forming a broad, rounded crown often as wide as the tree is tall. The growth habit is medium to fast, resulting in an erect, spreading form suitable for urban landscapes once established. In its native habitats of , the tree develops a sturdy structure adapted to temperate climates, with influences from and climate promoting vigorous vertical growth. The bark is initially smooth and gray, becoming furrowed and ridged with age, developing a grayish-brown texture marked by deep fissures and reddish undertones on mature trunks. Leaves are alternate and pinnately , measuring 15–25 cm long, with 7–17 ovate to lanceolate leaflets each 2–5 cm in length; they are bright green and lustrous above, paler or beneath, turning yellow in autumn for short-lived fall color. The petioles are swollen at the base, enclosing winter buds. The trunk forms a straight bole reaching up to 1 meter in diameter, supporting branches that exhibit a distinctive upright orientation, creating a tiered, pagoda-like especially evident in open-grown specimens. Young stems remain green or green-brown for 1–4 years, marked by prominent lenticels, before turning grayish-brown. The consists of a deep with lateral roots, providing anchorage and contributing to soil stability in various conditions. In cultivation, S. japonicum is long-lived, with lifespans reaching 100–200 years under optimal conditions.

Flowers, fruits, and reproduction

The flowers of Styphnolobium japonicum are small, pea-like, and typically creamy white with a slight tint, measuring about 1 cm in length. They are arranged in large, upright terminal panicles that reach 20-30 cm in length, creating a showy display during mid- to late summer, from July to August in its native range. The blooms are mildly fragrant and serve as a significant source, primarily attracting bees for . Following pollination, the tree produces pendant, legume-like fruits that are slender pods, 8-20 cm long, initially bright green and maturing to yellow-brown in autumn. Each pod is knobby and constricted between the 1-6 it contains, with the hard, dark brown, toxic resembling small beans; these pods often persist on the branches through winter. Reproduction in S. japonicum occurs mainly through seeds, which exhibit physical due to their impermeable coat, resulting in low natural rates without or hot to break dormancy. Vegetative is uncommon in the wild, with the species relying on for . The tree's includes leaf-out in spring, with first flowering typically occurring after 10-15 years of growth, though optimal flowering display may take longer to develop.

Distribution and habitat

Native range

Styphnolobium japonicum is native to eastern , encompassing central and eastern as well as southern Korea. In , its distribution centers on regions such as the provinces of , , , , , and , spanning north-central, south-central, and southeast areas. The species has been introduced and naturalized in since ancient times, though it originated elsewhere in the region. Within its native habitats, S. japonicum thrives in mixed forests, along river valleys, and on mountain slopes at elevations ranging from 100 to 1,500 meters. It prefers well-drained loamy soils with a range of 6 to 8, avoiding heavy or waterlogged conditions. The is adapted to a , characterized by annual of 600–1,200 mm, cold winters down to -20°C, and warm summers reaching 35°C. Historical records in , dating back to the around the 11th century BCE, document its use as a landscape tree near tombs and temples.

Introduced ranges and ecological impact

Styphnolobium japonicum was first introduced to in 1747, arriving in before spreading to in 1753, where it quickly gained popularity as an ornamental species. By the late , the reached , with the earliest recorded planting occurring in in 1784 as a valued urban street . Subsequent introductions expanded its presence along the East Coast of the starting in the 1830s, while it has since become widespread across much of , as well as in and , primarily through deliberate plantings in urban and landscaped settings. Introduced initially for its aesthetic appeal, shade provision, and adaptability to urban conditions, S. japonicum has naturalized in many areas, forming self-sustaining populations in disturbed urban sites, roadsides, and edges. Its rapid growth and tolerance to , , and varied soils facilitate this establishment, allowing it to thrive where native may struggle. However, this success has led to ecological concerns, as the competes aggressively with indigenous , potentially displacing them in naturalized habitats and reducing in affected ecosystems. In several U.S. states, including , , , , , and the District of Columbia, S. japonicum is regarded as an invasive or potentially due to its prolific seed production and ability to spread via pods containing multiple viable seeds. Although belonging to the legume family, it lacks the capacity for , as it does not form symbiotic root nodules with bacteria, limiting any direct enrichment benefits but not hindering its competitive vigor through and . Management efforts often involve mechanical removal of young seedlings or application to curb its expansion in sensitive natural areas.

Ecology

Pollination and seed dispersal

Styphnolobium japonicum flowers are primarily pollinated by insects, with honeybees (Apis mellifera) and bumblebees (Bombus spp.) serving as key vectors attracted to the nectar and abundant pollen in the creamy white, fragrant blossoms. Other bees, such as the Asian giant resin bee (Megachile sculpturalis), also visit the flowers for pollen and nectar, enhancing cross-pollination efficiency. The species depends on cross-pollination, as its flowers are adapted for entomophily rather than self-fertilization, promoting genetic diversity through pollinator-mediated gene flow. The tree's reproductive success is bolstered by synchronized mass flowering in late summer ( to ), when large panicles of blooms emerge simultaneously, creating a high-density and resource that draws swarms of pollinators and supports broader in native East Asian forests. Following , the resulting indehiscent pods—slender, persistent, and constricted between —facilitate mainly via gravity, as mature pods dry, split, and drop beneath the parent , with wind occasionally carrying lightweight short distances. Animal-mediated dispersal occurs sporadically, with birds like pied currawongs (Strepera graculina) ingesting and depositing viable after consuming the fruits. In natural habitats, S. japonicum seeds exhibit physical due to impermeable coats, requiring (e.g., by abrasion or ) or cold stratification (typically 2–3 months at 4–5°C) to break and enable ; without such treatments, in natural conditions is variable and typically lower, occurring opportunistically after environmental cues like winter chilling in native Chinese woodlands. This mechanism ensures persist in the soil bank.

Pests, diseases, and conservation status

Styphnolobium japonicum faces several biotic threats from pests that primarily target foliage and . (Aphis spp.) are common, feeding on tender shoots and leaves, causing distortion, curling, and the production of honeydew that promotes growth. Scale insects attach to bark and twigs, sucking and weakening the tree over time, often leading to branch dieback if infestations are severe. Potato leafhoppers (Empoasca fabae) pierce leaf tissues, resulting in stippling, yellowing, and reduced , particularly affecting young growth. Diseases pose significant risks, especially in stressed or urban environments. Verticillium wilt, caused by the soilborne fungus Verticillium dahliae, blocks vascular tissues, leading to wilting, leaf scorch, and progressive dieback of branches. Root rot from Phytophthora spp. thrives in waterlogged conditions, decaying roots and compromising stability and nutrient uptake. Honey fungus (Armillaria mellea) induces root and lower trunk rot, with mycelial fans visible on bark, though some populations exhibit resistance; urban trees under pollution or compaction stress are more vulnerable to these pathogens overall. S. japonicum is not considered threatened globally, owing to its extensive cultivation and naturalized ranges that buffer against decline. In its native and Korea, wild populations are harvested for medicinal uses, such as extracting from flowers and buds, potentially contributing to localized reductions, though no widespread endangerment is reported. Management emphasizes integrated approaches to mitigate threats. For pests like and scales, applications of or horticultural oils smother infestations while minimizing harm to beneficial insects. Cultural practices, including proper and soil aeration, reduce disease incidence, particularly root rots. In introduced regions, ongoing monitoring helps curb potential invasive spread by preventing uncontrolled seeding.

Cultivation

History of cultivation

Styphnolobium japonicum has been cultivated in since ancient times, with records dating back to the (1046–256 BCE), where it was planted outside palace gates as a symbol of authority, representing the grand tutor, mentor, and guardian in the . By the (206 BCE–220 CE), cultivation expanded widely for shade and ornamental purposes, particularly along roads and postal routes in northern . The tree's cultural significance persisted into the (618–907 CE), where it appeared in classical texts and poetry, often symbolizing longevity and scholarly virtue, and was planted near temples and tombs for its aesthetic and symbolic value. The species was introduced to in the mid-18th century through Jesuit missionaries in . Seeds were sent from by Pierre d'Incarville to in 1747, marking the first European cultivation. By 1753, nurseryman James Gordon introduced it to , with specimens reaching around 1758. It gained popularity in the as an ornamental "pagoda tree" in parks and gardens across , valued for its late-summer flowers and tiered branching habit reminiscent of Asian pagodas. During this period, cultivars like 'Pendula', a weeping form first noted in Chinese gardens and observed by plant collector in in 1853, entered cultivation in the West by the mid-19th century. In the , Styphnolobium japonicum spread to and further into urban landscapes and , contributing to post-World War II greening efforts in cities for its tolerance to and provision of shade. Selected cultivars, including 'Pendula', became staples in municipal plantings. Economically, emerged as a major exporter of the tree's flowers and buds for medicinal uses, with significant trade volumes supporting markets globally throughout the century.

Propagation methods and growing conditions

Styphnolobium japonicum can be propagated primarily through , stem cuttings, or , with seed propagation being the most common for general cultivation. possess a hard, impermeable coat that induces , necessitating to enhance ; the recommended method involves soaking in hot water (approximately 80°C) for 24 hours or using near-boiling water if initial fails, followed by in spring under moist, well-drained conditions. significantly improves rates, though exact success varies by conditions, often reaching moderate levels suitable for horticultural use. Semi- stem cuttings taken in summer or cuttings in autumn/winter can also root successfully when treated with rooting and placed in a well-drained medium under high . For cultivars, such as 'Princeton Upright' or 'Regent', onto of the species in early spring is preferred to maintain desirable traits, with high compatibility due to genetic similarity. The tree thrives in full sun for optimal growth and flowering, though it tolerates partial shade with reduced bloom quality. It prefers fertile, well-drained loamy soils with neutral to alkaline pH but adapts to clay, compacted, or nutritionally poor sites, provided waterlogging is avoided to prevent . Hardy in USDA zones 4 through 8, it withstands urban pollution, heat, and once established, making it suitable for a range of temperate climates. Establishment requires moderate watering to keep consistently moist without saturation, transitioning to after the first 1-2 years. should occur in late winter or early spring to shape the and promote a strong central leader, removing suckers and crossing branches as needed. Fertilization is minimal; apply a low-nitrogen, high-phosphorus formula in early spring once flowering begins to encourage blooms without excessive vegetative growth. Initial growth is slow, typically 10-20 cm per year for the first five years, accelerating to 20-40 cm annually thereafter before tapering in maturity. Young plants are sensitive to transplant shock, often exhibiting reduced vigor if disturbance occurs; using container-grown stock minimizes this risk and improves survival rates.

Uses

Ornamental and landscaping applications

Styphnolobium japonicum is widely appreciated in ornamental and landscaping contexts for its elegant form, late-season flowering, and adaptability to challenging environments, making it a favored choice for both aesthetic and functional purposes. As a reaching 50-75 feet in height and spread, it develops a broad, rounded canopy that provides substantial shade in parks, streets, and lawns, enhancing visual appeal with its symmetrical silhouette. The tree's creamy-white, fragrant flowers in pendulous panicles appear in late summer, followed by persistent, bead-like seed pods that add textural interest through winter, complemented by its grayish-brown bark with furrowed ridges for subtle seasonal contrast. Although fall foliage turns a modest yellow, the overall structure maintains year-round ornamental value. Various cultivars expand its design versatility. The weeping 'Pendula' form, with gracefully drooping branches, serves as a striking accent in formal gardens or focal points, reaching about 40 feet tall while maintaining a compact footprint. For constrained urban sites, the upright 'Columnaris' (synonymous with 'Princeton Upright') offers a narrower, columnar habit ideal for street alignments or small plazas, growing to 50 feet without excessive spread. This species also lends itself well to bonsai cultivation, where its fine branching and tolerance to pruning allow for artistic miniaturization in container landscapes. In urban landscaping, S. japonicum excels due to its resilience, tolerating , , and compacted soils while requiring minimal maintenance once established. Its deep, non-invasive promotes stability near sidewalks and pavements, reducing infrastructure damage risks compared to more aggressive species. Ecologically, the tree supports by attracting pollinators to its flowers and providing pods as a winter source for birds, thereby enhancing value in green spaces. Notable plantings underscore its historical and contemporary significance; for instance, specimens introduced to in the 18th century grace the historic , including a planted in 1764 near the , symbolizing early ornamental adoption. Today, it features in modern eco-parks and sustainable urban designs, such as those in campus and dry-site collections, where its pollution mitigation and shade provision align with environmental goals.

Medicinal and traditional uses

In , Styphnolobium japonicum, known as huai, has been utilized since ancient times, documented as early as the first century CE in classical texts like the Shennong Bencao Jing, though its applications for blood-related disorders trace back further in oral traditions. The dried flower buds, referred to as huai mi or Flos Sophorae Immaturus, are primarily employed to cool the blood, arrest bleeding, and treat conditions such as , , , and various hemorrhages including , , and epistaxis. These buds are administered orally as a at dosages of 5–10 grams per day, as specified in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, and are considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs for their hemostatic properties. The mature fruits, known as Fructus Sophorae, are also used in for similar purposes, including alleviating intestinal hemorrhage, , and , with recommended dosages of 6–9 grams in form. In Korean folk , teas prepared from the flowers have been traditionally applied to manage and related gastrointestinal issues, reflecting shared East Asian practices. Key active compounds contributing to these effects include , a abundant in the flower buds (up to 24% content), which supports vascular health by strengthening capillaries and exhibiting properties; modern pharmacological studies since the mid-20th century, including isolations in the , have confirmed rutin's role in reducing and . The bark has been used externally in some traditional contexts for due to its qualities, while the seeds serve as an emetic for severe cases of , though their use is limited by . Overall, the plant is generally regarded as safe when prepared from approved parts like buds and fruits at standard doses, but raw seeds contain , an that can cause , , facial swelling, and potentially fatal if ingested improperly; they are contraindicated during or . Additionally, the wood of S. japonicum is valued for its and is used in furniture and . The pods yield a yellow dye employed in coloring, such as for and . Young leaves and flowers are edible in moderation, often consumed cooked.

Phytochemistry

Major chemical constituents

Styphnolobium japonicum is particularly noted for its high content of , which are the predominant phytochemicals across various plant parts. Flower buds contain significant levels of (quercetin-3-rutinoside), comprising up to approximately 28% of the dry weight, as quantified through (HPLC) analyses. Other key include and , present in both flowers and leaves, contributing to the plant's overall polyphenolic profile. Seeds are a source of such as and genistin, which have been isolated and identified in fruit extracts. Additionally, sophoricoside, a major glycoside, is abundant in the fruits and seeds. Saponins, including triterpene glycosides, are found in the seeds and flower buds, contributing to the plant's defensive chemistry. Additional constituents include fatty acids in the seeds, where the oil content is approximately 5-10%, dominated by (around 53%) and other unsaturated fatty acids as revealed by lipid profiling. are present in the leaves, adding to the polyphenolic diversity. Flavonoid concentrations vary with environmental stress, showing elevated levels in affected plants, while seasonal peaks occur in flowers during maturation, as observed in metabolomic studies. , a key , is briefly noted in medicinal contexts for its vascular protective properties.

Pharmacological and toxicological properties

, a major found in Styphnolobium japonicum flower buds, exhibits and properties by scavenging free radicals and inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6 in cellular models. Clinical trials have demonstrated that supplementation with rutosides (derivatives of ) at doses of 500 mg daily reduces capillary fragility and improves symptoms of , including leg swelling and pain, in patients over 4-6 weeks of treatment. These effects are attributed to rutin's ability to strengthen vascular and reduce , as evidenced by decreased bruising and petechiae in fragility tests. In cardiovascular applications, , another key constituent derived from S. japonicum, lowers through and inhibition of in hypertensive models. Animal studies in spontaneously hypertensive rats administered quercetin at 10 mg/kg daily showed reductions of 18% in systolic blood pressure, 23% in diastolic pressure, and 21% in after 5 weeks, alongside decreased by 12%. These findings highlight quercetin's potential in mitigating , though human translation remains under investigation. Toxicity concerns primarily arise from the seeds of S. japonicum, which contain toxic compounds such as that can cause gastrointestinal distress, including , , and , upon ingestion. The seeds are considered unsafe for consumption and may lead to severe effects in large amounts. Despite promising preclinical data, research on S. japonicum's pharmacological properties is limited by a scarcity of long-term clinical trials, with most derived from short-term or that may not fully capture chronic effects or interactions with medications. Additionally, the of S. japonicum exhibits potential allergenicity, contributing to respiratory symptoms in sensitive individuals during peak blooming seasons in urban environments.

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