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1890s photochrom print of Neuschwanstein Castle, Bavaria, Germany

Photochrom, Fotochrom, Photochrome[Note 1][2] or the Aäc process[citation needed] is a process of hand-colouring photographs from a single black-and-white negative with subsequent photographic transfer onto lithographic printing plates. The process is a photographic variant of chromolithography (color lithography). Because no color information was preserved in the photographic process, the photographer would make detailed notes on the colors within the scene and use the notes to hand paint the negative before transferring the image through colored gels onto the printing plates.

History

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The process was invented in the 1880s by Hans Jakob Schmid (1856–1924), an employee of the Swiss company Orell Gessner Füssli—a printing firm whose history began in the 16th century.[3] Füssli founded the stock company Photochrom Zürich (later Photoglob Zürich AG) as the business vehicle for the commercial exploitation of the process and both Füssli[3] and Photoglob[4] continue to exist today. From the mid-1890s the process was licensed by other companies, including the Detroit Photographic Company in the US (making it the basis of their "phostint" process),[5] and the Photochrom Company of London.

Amongst the first commercial photographers to employ the technique were French photographer Félix Bonfils, British photographer Francis Frith and American photographer William Henry Jackson, all active in the 1880s.[6] The photochrom process was most popular in the 1890s, when true color photography was first developed but was still commercially impractical.

In 1898, the US Congress passed the Private Mailing Card Act which let private publishers produce postcards. These could be mailed for one cent each, while the letter rate was two cents. Publishers created thousands of photochrom prints, usually of cities or landscapes, and sold them as postcards. In this format, photochrom reproductions became popular.[7] The Detroit Photographic Company reportedly produced as many as seven million photochrom prints in some years, and ten to thirty thousand different views were offered.

After World War I, which ended the craze for collecting photochrom postcards, the chief use of the process was for posters and art reproductions. The last photochrom printer operated up to 1970.[8]

Process

[edit]

A tablet of lithographic limestone called a "litho stone" is coated with a light-sensitive surface composed of a thin layer of purified bitumen dissolved in benzene. A reversed halftone[dubious – discuss] negative is hand colored according to the sketch and notes taken at the scene, then pressed against the coating and exposed to daylight through gel filters, causing the bitumen to harden in proportion to the amount of light passing through each portion of the negative.[9] This will take ten to thirty minutes in summer and up to several hours in winter. A solvent such as turpentine is applied to remove the unhardened bitumen. The plate can be retouched to adjust the tonal scale, strengthening or softening tones as required. The image becomes imprinted on the stone in bitumen. Each tint is applied using a separate stone that bears the appropriate retouched image. The finished prints are produced using at least six, but more commonly ten to fifteen, tint stones.[8]

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Explanatory notes

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References

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Photochrom

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from Grokipedia
Photochrom is a lithographic process that creates colorized reproductions from black-and-white photographic negatives, producing vibrant, ink-based images through the transfer of the negative onto multiple printing plates coated with colored inks. Invented in the 1880s by Swiss chemist Hans Jakob Schmid at the Orell Gessner Füssli printing firm in Zurich, it bridged early and color , enabling mass production of detailed, realistic scenes long before true color became widespread. Photochrom gained popularity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries for affordable color images such as postcards and travel views.

Overview

Definition and Principles

Photochrom is a photolithographic printing process that produces colorized images from a single black-and-white photographic negative by creating multiple color separations photographically and transferring them onto lithographic stones, enabling the layered application of inks to create full-color reproductions. This technique combines elements of and to generate ink-based prints that mimic the appearance of color photographs, though it relies on mechanical reproduction rather than direct light capture. The core principles of Photochrom center on the direct photographic transfer of images onto light-sensitive lithographic stones, which are typically coated with a thin layer of —a naturally occurring asphalt that hardens upon exposure to . In this process, color separations are created photographically from the original black-and-white negative, guided by a hand-colored reference image made from the negative using the photographer's notes on hues and tones; each separation is transferred onto a separate stone, where hardens the bitumen in the image areas while unexposed portions remain soluble and are washed away. The resulting grease-receptive image on the stone adheres to oil-based inks during , exploiting the fundamental lithographic of mutual repulsion between and oil to prevent ink from transferring to non-image areas. Multi-color layering is achieved by using typically 6 to 15 stones, one for each hue, with precise registration ensuring alignment; the inks are applied sequentially to build the final composite image on paper. Unlike true color photography processes such as the autochrome plate, which capture and reproduce colors additively through starch grains on a sensitized medium, Photochrom is a subtractive method that does not record colors photographically but simulates them via guided photographic separations and lithographic reproduction. In contrast to , which requires hand-drawn or engraved color separations on each stone, Photochrom employs photographic transfer from a unified negative, allowing for more accurate tonal rendering and scalability in production while still resulting in visible dot patterns under magnification due to the halftone-like transfer. At a high level, the begins with the creation of a hand-colored reference image from the black-and-white negative based on the photographer's color notes, followed by of the lithographic stones with the light-sensitive coating. Exposure through each color separation transfers the image to the stone, after which development removes unhardened areas, and the stones are inked and in registration to layer colors onto the substrate. This method, developed in during the 1880s, provided an efficient means for mass-producing vibrant color images from originals.

Historical Significance

The photochrom process emerged in in the 1880s and played a crucial role in democratizing color imagery during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, allowing for the of affordable color prints well before true color photography became commercially viable. This innovation bridged the gap between black-and-white photography and full-color reproduction, making vibrant visual representations accessible to a broader audience beyond elite collectors. By enabling the inexpensive replication of detailed, lifelike images, photochrom significantly influenced and , as travelers could easily acquire and share colorful mementos of their journeys, fostering a growing appreciation for global destinations through illustrated albums and displays. In terms of industrial impact, photochrom revolutionized the and markets by facilitating large-scale production that met surging demand for pictorial . Major firms, such as the Detroit Publishing Company, reportedly produced up to seven million photochrom prints annually during their peak, underscoring the process's capacity for high-volume output and its contribution to in the sector. This scalability also aided in preserving historical sites in color, offering a vivid archival record of , landscapes, and cultural landmarks from an era predating widespread color film, thereby enriching historical documentation for future generations. Economically, photochrom's cost-effectiveness—achieving high-quality color results at prices comparable to ordinary black-and-white photographs—outstripped the labor-intensive hand-coloring of images, which limited distribution to smaller runs. This affordability expanded market reach, democratizing visual storytelling and laying foundational techniques for later color lithographic methods that dominated 20th-century . Its cultural legacy endures in the way it captured daily life and exotic locales in saturated hues, shaping public perceptions of the world and inspiring subsequent advancements in reproductive technologies.

History

Invention and Development

The Photochrom process emerged in the 1880s through the efforts of Hans Jakob Schmid (1856–1924), a lithographer at the Swiss printing firm Orell Gessner Füssli in Zurich, Switzerland. Schmid's innovation involved a photomechanical technique for transferring black-and-white photographic negatives directly onto lithographic stones, enabling the production of color prints via multi-color lithography. This built on prior experiments in color reproduction, such as the indirect photochromie method developed by French photographer Léon Vidal in the early 1870s, which used hand-applied pigments on albumen prints but lacked scalability for mass production. A key advancement by Schmid was the sensitization of lithographic stones—typically made of Bavarian —with a light-sensitive of (a natural asphalt) dissolved in , allowing the negative's image to be exposed and developed directly onto the stone surface. This direct transfer eliminated the need for manual tracing, improving fidelity over traditional , where colors were applied by hand without photographic precision. Early experimentation focused on overcoming alignment issues in multi-stone , requiring up to 15 stones for nuanced color layers; Schmid refined exposure times and chemical development to ensure sharp registration and tonal accuracy. The process, initially termed the Aäc process, was patented by Orell Gessner Füssli on January 4, 1888, marking a pivotal step in its technical maturation. Pre-commercial prototypes emerged shortly thereafter, with the first successful Photochrom prints produced in 1889 using images from Swiss photographer Romedo Guler, demonstrating enhanced color vibrancy and detail compared to labor-intensive manual methods. These initial tests on blocks highlighted the technique's potential for consistent quality, though further refinements using a hand-colored reference print to guide the production of separate lithographic stones through adjusted exposures and development of the original negative for each color layer were essential to achieve precise hue separation without bleeding or misalignment.

Commercialization and Peak

The commercialization of the Photochrom process began with the establishment of Photochrom & Co. in in 1889, founded to exploit the patented technology for producing color lithographic prints from photographic negatives. This company, later merged and renamed Photoglob Co. in 1895 and eventually Photoglob AG, became the central hub for licensing the process internationally. By the mid-1890s, licenses were granted to firms such as the Photochrom Company Limited in , which operated under Swiss oversight to produce prints for the British market. In the United States, the Photographic Company secured exclusive rights to the process around 1898, rebranding aspects of its operations as the Detroit Photochrom Company until 1905. This licensing spurred rapid business expansion, particularly following the process's recognition at the 1889 Universal Exposition, where it received a for its innovative color reproduction capabilities. The market experienced a significant boom after the U.S. Private Mailing Card Act of 1898, which permitted private companies to produce and sell postcards at the one-cent postage rate, enabling widespread distribution of affordable Photochrom color postcards. At its peak in the early 1900s, production scaled dramatically; the Photographic Company alone reportedly manufactured up to seven million Photochrom prints annually by 1905, focusing on scenic and travel views. The process saw broad adoption across and , with primary production centers in , the , and the . It gained popularity for , employing notable figures such as American photographer , who supplied extensive negatives to the Detroit firm starting in 1897, and British photographer , whose Middle Eastern landscapes were reproduced by the London licensee. Economically, Photochrom products were priced accessibly to drive mass consumption, supporting high-volume exports and stimulating employment in the burgeoning sector.

The Process

Preparation of Negatives and Plates

The preparation of negatives and plates in the Photochrom process begins with high-quality black-and-white glass negatives, typically produced on large-format plates to capture fine details in landscapes, , or portraits. These negatives served as the foundation for all subsequent color work, with the Photographic Company, for example, relying on such originals from photographers like to generate thousands of prints. Lithographic stones, made from fine-grained or occasionally for durability, were the primary printing surfaces; they were prepared by grinding to a smooth finish and coating with a light-sensitive to enable photographic transfer. To create color separations, skilled artists manually applied transparent watercolor-like dyes or pigments to a positive print derived from the original negative, using fine brushes to isolate tones for each hue—such as for skies, greens for foliage, or reds for accents—resulting in a set of specialized positives or directly modified negatives. This hand-coloring step was labor-intensive, requiring artistic judgment to approximate natural colors while accounting for the limitations of lithographic inks, and it produced the basis for multiple separation negatives, one per color layer. The process remained partially secretive, but it effectively translated the image into the multi-color framework essential for the final print. The plates were then sensitized by applying a thin layer of dissolved in a like or , which rendered the surface photosensitive; this coating, hardened by exposure, allowed selective solubility during development. Each color separation negative was placed in direct contact with a sensitized stone and exposed to ultraviolet , typically from arc lamps or , for several minutes to hours depending on the density—darker areas on the negative blocked , leaving the bitumen soft and ink-receptive, while lighter areas hardened and repelled ink after washing with a like . This transferred the tonal values directly onto the stone, creating a grease-based ready for . For multi-color accuracy, registration was achieved through precise alignment or pinhole systems etched into the edges of the negatives and corresponding stones, ensuring that subsequent plates overlaid correctly without color shifts; a complex image might require 6 to 15 or more plates, each handling a specific tint or shade to build depth and vibrancy. This meticulous alignment was critical, as even minor misregistrations could result in blurred or unnatural color bleeding, and it drew on established lithographic techniques adapted for photographic precision.

Printing and Production

After exposure, the lithographic stones are washed with turpentine to dissolve and remove the unexposed bitumen, leaving behind a greasy image on the surface where the light-hardened bitumen resists the solvent. This step reveals the tonal image ready for printing, with the greasy areas capable of accepting oil-based inks while the surrounding hydrophilic regions repel them. Colored lithographic inks, which are oil-based and formulated for planographic printing, are then applied to each individual stone using rollers, adhering preferentially to the greasy image areas. The printing occurs on a lithographic press through sequential runs, beginning with an outline or key plate to establish alignment, followed by layering of subsequent colors to build the full image; precise registration is essential to prevent misalignment across the multiple impressions. Typically, a minimum of six stones are used per image, though often more than ten—and up to fifteen or sixteen—are required to achieve the desired color complexity. Each lithographic stone, made of fine-grained , can weigh between 200 and 300 kg depending on size, necessitating specialized handling equipment for positioning on the press. Production is highly time-intensive, often taking weeks to months for a single image due to the manual retouching, inking, and multi-step required. Prints are produced on thin, absorbent stock, typically in sizes ranging from 3.75 by 7 inches to 6.5 by 9 inches, with larger or panoramic formats also common; quality control focuses on achieving vibrant, detailed color reproduction through careful ink application and inspection of each run. Technical challenges include preventing color bleeding between layers, addressed by applying thin, even ink films to maintain separation and sharpness. Stone quality variations can impact durability, but well-prepared stones are reusable for 1,000 to 2,000 impressions before regraining or replacement becomes necessary. At peak commercialization, firms like the Detroit Photographic Company achieved large-scale output, producing up to 7 million prints annually through optimized workflows.

Applications and Examples

Commercial Products

The Photochrom process, a multi-color lithographic technique, enabled the of vibrant, colorized images from black-and-white photographs, primarily manifesting in commercial products during its peak from the 1890s to the 1910s. The dominant product was color postcards, which served as affordable travel souvenirs and were typically sized at 3.5 x 5.5 inches to facilitate mailing under U.S. postal regulations established in 1898. These postcards depicted series of tourist destinations, such as European landmarks and American vistas, produced in high volumes with thousands of copies per design to meet demand. Illustrated calendars also emerged as popular items, featuring seasonal scenes in color to adorn homes and offices. Beyond postcards, Photochrom found application in other formats like book plates and magazine inserts, where color prints were bound into travel guides or periodicals to enhance visual appeal. These products targeted middle-class consumers seeking accessible mementos of exotic locations, , and natural landscapes, with individual items priced at around one cent to encourage widespread purchase and collection. At its height, the Detroit Publishing Company, a key U.S. adopter of the process, generated approximately seven million postcards annually from its of 40,000 negatives, underscoring the scale of commercial output. Retail distribution emphasized convenience, with postcards often packaged in albums or envelopes containing sets of 40 or more for series on specific regions, allowing consumers to curate personal collections of scenic views. This approach catered to the burgeoning market, making Photochrom products a staple in shops and general stores across the and .

Notable Photographers and Series

One of the most prominent figures associated with Photochrom was American photographer , whose black-and-white landscapes of were extensively reproduced using the process, particularly his Yellowstone series from expeditions in the 1870s. Jackson's images, captured during government surveys, were transformed into vibrant color prints by companies like the Detroit Photographic Company, showcasing geothermal features and rugged terrains that highlighted the region's natural wonders. British photographer contributed significantly through his Middle Eastern views, with originals from his 1856–1860 expeditions to , , and reproduced in Photochrom by European printers. These prints captured ancient monuments and biblical sites, bringing exotic locales to Western audiences with added color depth to emphasize architectural details and atmospheric lighting. French photographer Félix Bonfils, operating through Maison Bonfils in , produced scenes of and starting in the 1860s, many of which were adapted into Photochrom prints from the 1880s onward. Bonfils' studio generated thousands of negatives depicting orientalist motifs, urban markets, and holy sites, with color enhancements that amplified the cultural vibrancy of Ottoman-era landscapes. The Detroit Publishing Company issued extensive series of American scenery Photochroms in the early 1900s, including over 1,000 images of national parks, urban vistas, and rural idylls that documented the expanding . Swiss firm Photoglob specialized in European reproductions, such as detailed castle views from the and , emphasizing romantic architecture in series produced around 1895. The Photochrom Company of focused on British and international views, including urban scenes and exotic destinations, to appeal to travelers and collectors. Photographers adapted black-and-white originals for Photochrom by guiding lithographers in color selection, often drawing from personal observations to enhance tonal fidelity and evoke emotional resonance, as seen in an 1890s print of that faithfully rendered the Bavarian structure's turrets and forested surroundings in vivid hues. These works demonstrated Photochrom's global reach, spanning themes from the American West's frontiers to Alpine Europe and Middle Eastern antiquity, with numerous series—estimated at over 100—preserving diverse cultural and natural motifs for educational and artistic purposes.

Legacy

Decline and Factors

The Photochrom process reached its zenith in the late 1890s to early 1910s, with companies like the Photographic Company producing up to seven million prints annually at peak output. However, production experienced a sharp decline in the 1920s, following the disruptions of , with major operations winding down by the 1930s and the final specialized printers ceasing activity around 1970. A primary technological factor in the decline was the emergence of more efficient color reproduction methods, particularly the refinement of three- and four-color half-tone printing combined with offset lithography, which allowed for faster and less labor-intensive production of high-quality color images starting in the 1920s. These advancements reduced costs significantly compared to Photochrom's requirement for up to 16 separate lithographic stones per image, each demanding precise manual registration. Additionally, the introduction of direct color capture technologies, such as the Autochrome plate in 1907 and later Kodachrome film in 1935, diminished reliance on hand-applied color to black-and-white originals by enabling viable color photography for mass markets. Economic and social disruptions from the World Wars played a crucial role, as they severed international supply chains for materials like and halted the booming industry that had driven demand for scenic Photochrom postcards and prints. The process's dependence on highly skilled lithographers for color separation and exacerbated rising labor costs in the post-war era, making it uncompetitive against automated alternatives. Competition intensified with offset lithography's scalability, which supported larger print runs at lower per-unit prices for posters, books, and advertisements. In terms of final operations, key firms like Photoglob Zürich, the original Swiss developer, closed its Photochrom printing division in the early 1920s and pivoted to postcard distribution and other printing services, while the Detroit Photographic Company entered in 1924 and liquidated its assets by 1932. Surviving operations in and the U.S. persisted sporadically for niche art reproductions into the mid-20th century, but the process was largely obsolete by the 1930s due to these converging pressures.

Collections and Preservation

The Library of Congress maintains one of the most extensive collections of Photochrom prints, totaling approximately 6,500 items, including around 500 North American views produced by the Detroit Publishing Company and the majority of European and Middle Eastern scenes from the Photoglob Company in Zürich. The Swiss National Library in Bern houses the Photoglob-Wehrli archive, comprising over 160,000 image units such as glass and plastic negatives, vintage prints, postcards, sample albums, and production records spanning 1897 to 1970, offering comprehensive insight into the Photochrom process in Zurich. The British Museum holds a selection of Photochrom prints and postcards, particularly those capturing North American and European landmarks from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Preservation of Photochrom prints presents challenges due to the of lithographic inks under exposure to and elevated , which accelerates degradation, and paper deterioration from inherent acidity leading to and discoloration over time. Conservation techniques emphasize environmental controls, such as maintaining stable temperatures around 70°F (21°C) and relative of 45–55% to minimize chemical reactions, alongside matting with acid-free materials and archival enclosures to isolate prints from pollutants and direct handling. Digital initiatives have enhanced accessibility and preservation, with the scanning its Photochrom collection using an overhead Sinar 54 at 800 pixels per inch to create high-resolution master TIFF files averaging 7,000 pixels across, integrated into their online catalog for public and research use since the early . These reproductions support non-invasive study of the prints' color layering and detail, though no large-scale physical revival of the Photochrom technique has occurred. As of , AI-assisted colorization tools for black-and-white photographs echo the Photochrom method by algorithmically applying hues based on trained datasets, reviving historical imagery in a modern computational framework. Current access to Photochrom artifacts occurs primarily through institutional digital platforms and targeted displays in and history museums, where they educate on early mass-produced color imaging and its role in visual documentation. For instance, the Swiss National Library's archive contributes 13,000 high-definition images to , fostering global educational outreach on photomechanical innovation. In , prints appear in occasional retrospectives on 19th-century technologies, underscoring their historical significance without widespread commercial resurgence.

References

  1. https://www.prepressure.com/printing/history/photochrome-prints
  2. http://www.photographers-resource.co.uk/photography/history/introduction_to_photochromes.htm
  3. https://fiveminutehistory.com/photochrom-victorian-era-color-photography/
  4. https://www.loc.gov/collections/photochrom-prints/articles-and-essays/photochrom-process/
  5. https://www.museedelaphotographie.com/en/exhibitions/journey-to-the-holy-land-through-the-photochromes-from-1880-to-1895/
  6. https://creativepro.com/scanning-around-gene-miracle-photochrom/
  7. https://blogs.loc.gov/picturethis/2022/01/reflections-on-photochroms/
  8. https://www.loc.gov/collections/photochrom-prints/about-this-collection/
  9. https://www.americancatskills.com/blog/2023/4/detroit-publishing-company-capturing-the-beauty-of-the-catskills-part-1
  10. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/748950
  11. https://loeildelaphotographie.com/en/vevey-a-la-redecouverte-des-photochromes/
  12. https://www.rdrnews.com/arts_and_entertainment/vision/the-story-of-photochroms-part-1/article_3262c1d4-dec1-11ec-ba3f-f35817c5317b.html
  13. https://www.nb.admin.ch/snl/en/home/about-us/pdd/collections/photographs/photoglob-wehrli.html
  14. https://expositions.nlr.ru/ve/RA7257/st-petersburg-photochromes
  15. https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/people/cp125656/the-photochrom-company-limited
  16. https://www.loc.gov/collections/detroit-publishing-company/about-this-collection/
  17. https://www.loc.gov/collections/detroit-publishing-company/articles-and-essays/development-of-the-modern-postcard/
  18. https://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/pgz/process.html
  19. https://www.raremaps.com/essay/40/william-henry-jackson-and-the-photochrom-process
  20. https://internationalphotomag.com/photochrom-postcards-from-1900s/
  21. http://www.earlyphotography.co.uk/site/gloss4.html
  22. https://www.glessnerhouse.org/the-collection
  23. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/55971/55971-h/55971-h.htm
  24. https://cool.culturalheritage.org/coolaic/sg/bpg/annual/v21/bpga21-01.pdf
  25. https://www.polymetaal.nl/contents/en-uk/d1905_Lithography.html
  26. https://harvardartmuseums.org/article/gericault-s-stone-paper
  27. https://blog.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/find-out-when-a-photo-was-taken-identify-a-postcard/
  28. https://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/det/development.html
  29. https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/93845504/
  30. https://www.thehenryford.org/collections-and-research/digital-collections/archival-collections/420246/
  31. https://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/stamped-cards-and-postcards.pdf
  32. https://www.playle.com/detroit_publishing.php
  33. https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/collections/439afdd0-c62b-012f-66d1-58d385a7bc34
  34. https://archivesspace.amherst.edu/repositories/2/resources/189
  35. https://lcdl.library.cofc.edu/content/william-henry-jackson-photochrom-collection-1898-1905/
  36. https://theinactivist.blog/2025/08/18/felix-bonfils-on-the-road-to-jerusalem/
  37. https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2002696256/
  38. https://www.prepressure.com/printing/history/photochrome-postcards-castles-palaces
  39. https://www.prepressure.com/printing/history/1900-1949
  40. https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/photochrom-new-york-city/
  41. https://blog.nationalmuseum.ch/en/2020/12/belle-epoque-in-colour/
  42. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/EA_Am-B56-49
  43. https://www.nedcc.org/preservation101/session-5/5photographic-prints
  44. https://www.canada.ca/en/conservation-institute/services/preventive-conservation/guidelines-collections/photographic-materials.html
  45. https://www.conservation-wiki.com/wiki/BPG_Matting_and_Framing
  46. https://www.loc.gov/collections/photochrom-prints/about-this-collection/technical-information/
  47. https://developer.nvidia.com/blog/easily-colorize-black-and-white-photos-with-ai/
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