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1629–1631 Italian plague
1629–1631 Italian plague
1629–1631 Italian plague
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Melchiorre Gherardini, Piazza S. Babila, Milan, during the plague of 1630: plague carts carry the dead for burial.

The Italian plague of 1629–1631, also referred to as the Great Plague of Milan, was part of the second plague pandemic that began with the Black Death in 1348 and ended in the 18th century. One of two major outbreaks in Italy during the 17th century, it affected northern and central Italy and resulted in at least 280,000 deaths, with some estimating fatalities as high as one million, or about 35% of the population.[1] The plague may have contributed to the decline of Italy's economy relative to those of other Western European countries.[2]

Outbreaks

[edit]

Thought to have originated in Northern France in 1623, the plague was carried throughout Europe as a result of troop movements associated with the Thirty Years' War and was allegedly brought to Lombardy in 1629 by soldiers involved in the War of the Mantuan Succession.[3] The disease first spread to Venetian troops and in October 1629 reached Milan, Lombardy's major commercial centre. Although the city instituted a quarantine and limited access to external visitors and trade goods, it failed to eliminate the disease. A major outbreak in March 1630 resulted from relaxed health measures during the carnival season, followed by a second wave in the spring and summer of 1631. Overall, Milan suffered approximately 60,000 fatalities out of a total population of 130,000.[3]

East of Lombardy, the Republic of Venice was infected in 1630–31. The city of Venice was severely hit, with recorded casualties of 46,000 out of a population of 140,000. Some historians believe that the drastic loss of life, and its impact on commerce, ultimately resulted in the downfall of Venice as a major commercial and political power.[4]

Population before the plague and death toll, selected cities:[1]

City Population
in 1630		 Death estimates
by 1631		 Percentage of
population lost
Verona 54,000 33,000 61%
Parma 30,000 15,000 50%
Milan 130,000 60,000 46%
Venice 140,000 46,000 33%
Bologna 62,000 15,000 24%
Florence 76,000 9,000 12%

A 2019 study argues the plague of 1629–1631 led to lower growth in several cities affected by the plague and "caused long-lasting damage to the size of Italian urban populations and to urbanization rates. These findings support the hypothesis that seventeenth-century plagues played a fundamental role in triggering the process of relative decline of the Italian economies."[5]

See also

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References

[edit]

Sources

[edit]
  • Alfani, Guido; Percoco, Marco (2019). "Plague and long-term development: the lasting effects of the 1629–30 epidemic on the Italian cities" (PDF). The Economic History Review. 72 (4): 1175–1201. doi:10.1111/ehr.12652. ISSN 1468-0289. S2CID 131730725. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-06-05. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
  • Cipolla, Carlo M. (1981). Fighting the Plague in Seventeenth Century Italy. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-08340-3.
  • Hays, J. N. (2005). Epidemics and pandemics; their impacts on human history. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1851096589.
  • Kohn, George C. (2007). Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present (3rd ed.). New York: Facts on File. pp. 200. ISBN 9780816069354.
  • Prinzing, Friedrich (1916). Epidemics Resulting from Wars. Oxford: Clarendon Press.


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1629–1631 Italian plague

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The 1629–1631 Italian plague was a catastrophic outbreak of () that ravaged , resulting in approximately 2 million deaths and a 30–35% across the affected regions. Originating in around 1623, the epidemic entered in late 1629 via infected troops during the (1628–1631), spreading rapidly from the southward through urban and rural areas. It devastated major cities including , , , , and (which lost 61% of its population), with urban mortality rates averaging 35.9% and peaking at 72.2% in due to combined siege and disease effects. Preceding the main plague wave, Milan suffered a distinct epidemic in summer 1629—likely typhoid fever amid war-induced famine and migration—that claimed about 5,993 lives, or 45.7% above the prior average annual mortality, weakening the city before the plague's arrival in autumn. By spring 1630, the plague had synchronized across (sparing only parts of , , and , and the city of Ferrara, which recorded zero plague deaths thanks to effective integrated disease management measures), reaching by late 1630 and even via maritime routes. In , the outbreak peaked between and 1630, recording 43,088 deaths over 1630–1631 and reducing the population from 141,625 in 1624 to 102,243 by 1633—a 27.81% drop—despite efforts to isolate the sick in hospitals and enforce quarantines. , infected on May 6, 1630, by troops from the Mantua siege, saw around 15,000 deaths (24% of its 62,000 residents) in seven to eight months, prompting coordinated measures such as multiple lazarettos, house sanitations, and financial aid from the . Public health responses, hampered by wartime chaos and reliance on , included confinements and border closures, but high urban density and troop movements limited their effectiveness. The epidemic's long-term consequences were profound, accelerating Italy's relative economic decline by decimating urban , lowering northern urbanization rates by 20.9% from 1600 to 1700, and shifting production toward rural areas with lower-quality outputs.

Background

Historical Context

The (1628–1631) erupted following the death of Vincenzo II Gonzaga in December 1627, sparking a dispute over the duchy that involved major European powers, including , , and the . This conflict, intertwined with the broader , prompted extensive troop movements across the , as forces from and Imperial armies advanced into to support Habsburg claims, while French troops intervened to back Charles de Nevers. These mobilizations, involving tens of thousands of soldiers and accompanying refugees, created ideal conditions for disease transmission by concentrating mobile populations in unsanitary camps and along invasion routes. Northern and central Italy entered the late 1620s in a precarious state, marked by severe agricultural disruptions and demographic vulnerabilities. Grain shortages and famines struck the region in 1627–1628, affecting over half of communities in and and up to 80% in , driven by poor harvests, high population pressures, and meteorological instability that led to elevated burial rates and rural-to-urban migration. These crises compounded the legacy of earlier epidemics, notably the "San Carlo" plague of 1575–1577, which had ravaged urban centers like and , killing tens of thousands and leaving lasting scars on population recovery and economic resilience. The , caused by the bacterium , had persisted in Europe since the through cycles of infection in rodent reservoirs, primarily black and brown rats, with transmission to humans occurring via flea bites when rodent populations crashed and fleas sought new hosts. In 17th-century , this epidemiology was exacerbated by dense urban populations in trade hubs like and , where poor sanitation fostered rat infestations, and by interconnected commerce and migration routes, including Alpine passes such as the corridor, which funneled goods, travelers, and pathogens from southward. Amid these tensions, plague rumors surfaced in the region by late 1628, linked to infected mercenaries moving through the area as part of the escalating Mantuan conflict. Initial confirmed cases emerged there in October 1629, carried by soldiers from infected northern territories.

Origins of the Outbreak

The outbreak of the 1629–1631 Italian plague is traced to the region along the Swiss-Italian border, where the first confirmed cases appeared in late summer 1629. This Alpine valley served as a critical corridor for troop movements during the , a conflict within the broader . Infected imperial troops, primarily German forces descending from plague-affected areas in , carried the disease into the region as they advanced toward the siege of . By mid-September 1629, symptoms were reported among soldiers and locals in villages east of , such as and Bellano. Transmission was facilitated by the chaos of , including the movement of refugees and disrupted supply lines. from poor harvests drove peasants from rural areas into overcrowded settlements, while military provisioning involved grain shipments that likely harbored infected rats and fleas; restrictions on these supplies further exacerbated and mobility. Although specific evidence ties refugees from besieged Mantuan territories, like those near , to early vectors, the primary mechanism involved fleas on thriving amid the unsanitary conditions of camps and transport routes. From , the plague spread southward into through Alpine valleys, reaching by early October 1629 with the first documented case on October 9. Initial symptoms in affected villages included painful buboes in the groin or armpits, high fever, and , often leading to rapid death within days. This early dissemination was accelerated by the convergence of columns and civilian displacement along paths. Epidemiologically, the bubonic form of the plague, caused by and transmitted via flea bites, had an of 2–6 days, allowing swift propagation in the war-torn environment. Poor in encampments and gatherings promoted proliferation, as garbage and unburied waste provided ideal breeding grounds for fleas, intensifying the outbreak's momentum before containment efforts could take hold.

Spread and Outbreaks

Initial Spread from

The plague entered the core territories of the in late 1629, originating from outbreaks in the region carried by imperial troops during the . By mid-September 1629, infected soldiers and travelers had crossed the Alpine passes into and , where the disease quickly took hold among local populations and military encampments. These entry points overwhelmed rudimentary border controls, as the cordon sanitaire intended to seal the Alpine routes proved ineffective against the volume of troop movements—approximately 35,000 German soldiers passing through between September 20 and October 3—allowing the pathogen to disseminate via direct contact, contaminated clothing, and smuggled goods. By October 1629, the outbreak had advanced southward, reaching through regional trade networks disrupted by military logistics and infecting during the imperial siege that began that month. In , winter deaths among s and officers marked the initial urban incursion, with the disease spreading from besieged camps to civilian areas via foraging parties and deserters. Transmission events in these areas were exacerbated by infected travelers bypassing quarantines; for instance, a arriving in from on October 22 died of plague on October 30, prompting the confinement of his family in the Lazzaretto. Early incursions into smaller towns highlighted the role of local gatherings in amplification. In , suspected cases emerged by October 20 in nearby villages like and Bellano, confirmed by local physician Alessandro Tadino on October 26, with the spread driven by market fairs and pilgrimages that drew crowds from infected border regions. By November 1629, the plague had penetrated proper via a soldier from , resulting in at least 39 documented cases and 29 deaths in the city through early 1630, though containment efforts like possession burnings limited immediate escalation. Regional variations influenced the pace of dissemination, with the plague advancing more slowly into due to the Venetian Republic's systems serving as natural barriers that hindered overland troop movements and trade caravans. Venetian forces encountered the disease among their ranks in October 1629, but isolated island quarantines and maritime controls delayed widespread outbreaks until the following year.

Major Affected Regions

The 1629–1631 Italian plague devastated , particularly the regions of , , and , where urban centers served as epicenters of transmission amid ongoing conflicts from the . In , the outbreak reached in October 1629 via infected troops, escalating into a major epidemic by early 1630; the city's summer surge that year was exacerbated by concurrent and poor sanitation, leading to approximately 60,000 deaths out of a population of 130,000, or about 46% mortality. Adjacent areas in experienced similar patterns, with the plague spreading rapidly through trade and military routes following its initial entry from the . In , the Republic's territories were struck severely in 1630, with recording its outbreak starting in and peaking from to December that year, followed by a secondary wave in early 1631; total deaths reached approximately 43,000 in the city alone, representing roughly 28% of its 141,000 inhabitants, though estimates including suburbs suggest up to 60,000. The epidemic's intensity in highlighted urban vulnerabilities, as dense populations and port activities facilitated rapid dissemination, contrasting with somewhat lower proportional losses in surrounding rural districts. Emilia-Romagna saw outbreaks intensify in 1630, affecting key cities like , , and within the . Parma lost about 16,000–18,300 residents, or 53–61% of its 30,000 population, while Modena suffered around 12,000 deaths from 20,000 inhabitants; in Bologna, the epidemic officially began in May 1630 after suspected entry in February, peaking in July–August with roughly 15,000 fatalities, reducing the city's population by 24% from 62,000 to 47,000. These areas experienced synchronized urban peaks tied to regional troop movements, with the plague persisting into 1631. The plague extended to by mid-1630, primarily through contaminated trade routes from the north. In , reported 9,000–14,700 deaths, equating to 12–20% of its 75,000 residents, with outbreaks lasting into 1633; and nearby towns also faced significant waves starting around the same period. The , including as noted earlier, saw further incursions, though containment efforts like lazarettos limited spread compared to northern devastation. Geographically, the epidemic exhibited stark rural-urban divides: coastal urban hubs like suffered 30–40% mortality due to and mobility, while isolated rural valleys, such as where the plague first entered from Alpine passes, endured exceptionally high rates of 50–70% in confined communities, amplifying losses through limited escape and aid. Overall, northern regions bore the brunt, with 30–35% average mortality, tapering southward.

Impact

Demographic Toll

The 1629–1631 Italian plague exacted a profound demographic toll, with estimates indicating around 2 million deaths in , equivalent to a 30–35% across the affected regions. Northern and central cities bore the brunt of the mortality, often losing 30–50% of their inhabitants; other cities like saw around 15,000 deaths (24% of its 62,000 residents), while experienced peak mortality of 72.2% amid siege conditions. For instance, Milan's population fell from about 130,000 to roughly 70,000, with approximately 60,000 fatalities attributed to the disease. In , official records document 43,088 deaths between 1629 and 1631, reducing the city's population from 141,625 in 1624 to 102,243 by 1633—a decline of nearly 28%. Mortality patterns revealed vulnerabilities among specific groups, with higher rates among children and working-age adults due to factors like and exposure in overcrowded conditions. In Imola, bioarchaeological analysis of mass graves showed subadults (under 18) comprising 27% of victims, exceeding contemporary hospital records that underreported child cases at 4.9%. Gender disparities varied by location; while women represented 62.2% of lazaretto patients in Imola's 1632 wave, overall female mortality was slightly lower in some urban records, possibly linked to differences in mobility and labor roles. Excess mortality far outstripped normal levels, as evidenced by Venetian death registers showing 1630–1631 fatalities at roughly 10 times the pre-epidemic annual average of about 3,000. In , parish logs indicated an 80% reduction in baptisms during the peak, signaling sharp declines in births and elevated amid the chaos. The concurrent exacerbated these effects by displacing rural populations into cities, fostering overcrowding and secondary infections that intensified urban death rates.

Economic and Social Disruption

The 1629–1631 plague inflicted severe economic disruptions across northern and , primarily through the of and labor shortages that paralyzed key industries. In , containment measures such as shop closures and prohibitions on auctions led to a near-total halt in commercial activity, with deposits at the Banco della Piazza plummeting from 1.7 million ducats in 1618 to just 56,185 ducats by 1630, reflecting a catastrophic decline in and transactions at hubs like the . Similarly, the and industries in suffered ruinous setbacks due to widespread mortality, which created acute labor shortages that crippled output and shifted production toward rural areas less affected by urban quarantines. These disruptions were exacerbated by the epidemic's demographic toll, which reduced the available workforce by up to 46% in hard-hit areas like . Agricultural production in the region collapsed amid the chaos, as high mortality rates of 30–35% prompted peasants to abandon fields, leading to widespread crop failures and contributing to famines in 1631. In , where the plague's impact was relatively lighter with mortality around 14% in , grain prices still tripled in response to supply shortages and panic hoarding, straining rural economies already burdened by preceding wartime scarcities. Overall, these agricultural shortfalls not only diminished but also eroded the rural demographic surplus essential for sustaining urban trade and industry in pre-industrial . Social structures frayed under the epidemic's pressure, with family units disintegrating as survivors fled infected households, leaving behind a of orphans in cities like , where approximately 28% of the population perished. This upheaval fueled a surge in among displaced peasants, who turned to amid economic desperation and weakened enforcement, while anti-Semitic pogroms erupted in several northern towns, scapegoating Jewish communities for the outbreak and resulting in attacks and expulsions. isolation further deepened social fragmentation, as communities shunned the afflicted, eroding traditional support networks. Class disparities intensified during the crisis, with the often retreating to isolated countryside villas to evade infection, while the urban poor, confined to overcrowded slums, faced the highest exposure and mortality rates due to limited mobility and . This divide widened economic inequalities, as elites preserved wealth through fiscal maneuvers like Venice's emergency subsidies, whereas laborers endured immediate hardships from halted wages and shortages.

Response and Containment

Public Health Measures

In response to the 1629–1631 plague outbreak, Italian cities implemented protocols rooted in earlier practices, mandating a 40-day isolation period known as quaranta for ships, travelers, and goods arriving from infected areas. In , the Provveditori alla Sanità, a board of magistrates appointed by the , enforced these measures at ports and city gates, screening entrants with certificates (fedi) from plague-free zones and confining suspects to offshore islands. Similar protocols in involved closing most city gates and stationing physicians and officials to monitor arrivals, isolating households of the infected and marking their doors with red crosses to signal contagion risks. These efforts aimed to curb the spread through enforced separation, though initial delays in some regions allowed the disease to infiltrate via trade routes and military movements. Plague hospitals, or lazarettos, served as central facilities for isolating and treating the infected, with significant expansions during the . relied on the established Lazzaretto Vecchio, an island complex operational since 1423, which housed thousands of patients and included separate wards for the sick, suspects, and convalescents; with vinegar, herbs, and aromatic substances was routine to purify air and linens. In , the Lazzaretto Vecchio accommodated up to 16,000 individuals at its peak, providing rudimentary care amid overcrowding, while repurposed convents like San Giorgio and sites such as Pontelagoscuro as temporary lazarettos, segregating patients to minimize cross-infection. Imola's Lazaretto dell’Osservanza functioned dually as a and burial site, treating over half of reported cases by 1632 with a exceeding 50 percent among admissions. Health workers, often prisoners or volunteers in protective oilcloth robes and scent-filled , performed these duties while avoiding direct contact where possible. Burial practices were reformed to prevent gatherings and further transmission, with mass graves established outside urban centers and church funerals prohibited. Venice designated islands like Lazzaretto Vecchio and Sant'Ariano for interments, where numerous bodies were buried in layered pits during the outbreak, often dusted with lime to neutralize odors and pathogens. In Imola, over 100 mass graves at the Lazaretto dell’Osservanza held 8–10 cadavers each, separated by lime layers and excavated in later archaeological studies revealing 133 skeletons from the period. Ferrara employed specialized gravediggers (sotterramorti) to handle rapid, public-funded burials, burning infected belongings and reimbursing families to discourage concealment of deaths. These measures, overseen briefly by local authorities, reflected a shift toward sanitary isolation over traditional rites. Medical interventions adhered to Galenist humoral theory, emphasizing balance through , purging, and herbal remedies to counteract "corrupt" air and miasmas. Physicians lanced buboes to drain "poisons," applied herbal poultices of and , and prescribed composito—an oil infused with viper venom and spices—for topical protection in cities like . Supportive care in lazarettos included rest, diet, and with vinegar-soaked cloths, though contagion was increasingly recognized as a key factor by some, influencing isolation tactics over curative specifics. Despite these efforts, mortality remained high due to limited understanding of the bacterial cause, with treatments providing symptomatic relief at best.

Governmental and Local Actions

In the , under Spanish Habsburg rule, Governor and his successors enforced stringent border closures and curfews to contain the plague's spread, including the sealing of city gates and restrictions on movement from infected areas, though these measures were undermined by ongoing military demands and leadership challenges. In the Venetian Republic, the coordinated a centralized response across the terraferma, dividing affected territories into zones managed by Provveditori Generali such as Francesco Pisani and Alvise Vallaressa, who oversaw quarantines and sanitary enforcement; to address concurrent , the issued decrees allocating grain supplies and subsidies to sustain the population, supported by an apostolic brief from authorizing enhanced health governance. Local responses varied significantly in effectiveness. In , the Congregazione della Sanità implemented an integrated management system featuring early detection through secret physician-spies dispatched to monitor neighboring regions like , strict gate surveillance with escalating alert protocols, and the establishment of lazarettos such as those at , resulting in exceptionally low mortality of around 20 deaths per week in a of 32,000—contrasting sharply with the devastation in nearby . Conversely, in , initial concealment of cases by authorities to safeguard delayed , exacerbated by internal including the flight of Cardinal Legate Antonio Barberini and resistance from civic magistrates, leading to over 15,000 deaths (24% of the ) despite later efforts like lazaretto construction and the expenditure of 700,000 lire in . Enforcement faced substantial challenges from both civilian resistance and military priorities. In , merchants and residents rioted in 1630 against quarantines, fueled by disbelief in the plague's severity and economic grievances, resulting in lynchings and the torture of suspected "ungraziati" spreaders like barber Gian Giacomo Mora. The ongoing further interfered, as French and Imperial troops—carriers of the disease—received exemptions from quarantines to maintain sieges and movements, allowing the plague to proliferate across despite local prohibitions. International aid provided some relief amid the crisis. extended subsidies and diplomatic support to , which suffered heavily with around 20-25% population loss, including pleas to the to curb troop deployments that exacerbated the outbreak; these efforts complemented papal endorsements of Venetian health measures, such as the 1630 apostolic brief bolstering the Health Congregation's authority.

Aftermath and Legacy

Long-term Demographic Effects

The 1629–1631 Italian plague inflicted severe and prolonged demographic impacts on , where mortality rates averaged 30–35% of the total population, contrasting sharply with the more limited losses in southern regions during this specific outbreak. Urban centers experienced the most enduring shifts, with severely affected cities like and displaced onto lower long-term growth trajectories. In , the pre-plague population was 141,625 in 1624, with 43,088 deaths recorded over 1630–1631, resulting in a 27.81% decline to 102,243 by 1633 (approximately 30% mortality); full recovery to pre-epidemic levels took until the late seventeenth century. Mantua faced even greater devastation, its population plummeting from about 30,000 to fewer than 7,000 by 1631—a loss of approximately 77%—though the city rebounded to 25,000 inhabitants by 1640, resulting in a partial but enduring reduction relative to pre-plague benchmarks. Across northern urban areas, such depopulation delayed overall recovery until around 1680–1690. Italy's national stagnated through the mid-seventeenth century, with northern regions bearing the brunt while the south remained comparatively stable until the subsequent 1656–1657 plague. Urbanization rates in the north collapsed from 23–24% before 1630 to about 15% immediately after, recovering only to 18.2% by 1700 and remaining suppressed into the eighteenth century. These patterns underscored a broader demographic , as weakened population structures and recurrent vulnerabilities impeded swift repopulation.

Cultural and Historical Significance

The 1629–1631 Italian plague profoundly influenced artistic expression, with painters invoking religious figures as protectors against the epidemic. In , Reni's Pallione del Voto (1630), a banner depicting the Virgin Mary and Saint Francis Xavier, was commissioned as a to the Madonna of the Rosary amid the outbreak, symbolizing divine intercession and communal hope. Similarly, in , which suffered severe losses, artists like Pietro Liberi contributed to plague-themed works in churches such as San Pietro di Castello, where motifs of deliverance from affliction underscored themes of salvation. Architectural responses included the erection of votive columns across ; for instance, the plague column in Rho, near , was raised in 1644 to commemorate the end of the devastation and express gratitude for survival. These works, often featuring saints like Roch and Sebastian, blended with , emphasizing charity and spiritual remedies over mere horror. Literary responses captured the era's terror and resilience, blending contemporary accounts with later reflections. Diaries and treatises from the time, such as Francesco Rondinelli's Relazione del contagio (1634), documented outbreaks in Florence and highlighted processions invoking the Madonna dell'Impruneta as a bulwark against the disease. In Rome, where fears of spread prompted heightened vigilance, noblewomen like Olimpia Savelli recorded personal anxieties in private letters, reflecting broader societal dread despite the city's relative sparing. Later, Alessandro Manzoni's historical novel The Betrothed (1827) immortalized the Lombard events, devoting chapters to the 1630 Milan plague based on eyewitness sources like Giuseppe Ripamonti's chronicle, portraying it as a chaotic force that tested human morality and faith. These narratives romanticized survival while critiquing social injustices amplified by the crisis. Historically, the plague exacerbated Italy's vulnerabilities during the , as troop movements in the (1628–1631) facilitated its spread from the , weakening northern states economically and demographically at a pivotal moment. Modern interpretations view it as a catalyst for Italy's seventeenth-century decline relative to , with the epidemic's shocks hindering recovery and underscoring the limits of fragmented governance. As a precursor to advanced strategies, such as those in London's 1665 outbreak, it highlighted evolving and isolation practices born from Italian experiences. The plague's legacy intertwined with myths of , reinforcing emphases on and Marian veneration. Outbreaks were frequently framed as God's judgment for moral failings like or , prompting intensified devotions, including vows for churches like Venice's (consecrated 1687), built to honor the Virgin's role in halting the 1630–1631 scourge. Exaggerated tales of apocalyptic punishment fueled piety, with processions and ex-votos proliferating as communal acts of atonement, shaping Italian religious culture well into the era.

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