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Frogmouths
Tawny frogmouth, at night
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Clade: Strisores
Clade: Vanescaves
Order: Podargiformes
Matthews, 1918
Family: Podargidae
Gray, 1847
Genera
ceylon frogmouth from the western ghats of India

The frogmouths (Podargidae) are a group of nocturnal birds related to owlet-nightjars, swifts, and hummingbirds. Species in the group are distributed in the Indomalayan and Australasian realms.

Biology

[edit]

They are named for their large flattened hooked bill and huge frog-like gape, which they use to capture insects. The three Podargus species are large frogmouths restricted to Australia and New Guinea, that have massive flat broad bills. They are known to take larger prey, such as small vertebrates (frogs, mice, etc.), which are sometimes beaten against a stone before swallowing.[1] The ten Batrachostomus frogmouths are found in tropical Asia. They have smaller, more rounded bills and are predominantly insectivorous. Both Podargus and Batrachostomus have bristles around the base of the bill, and Batrachostomus has other, longer bristles which may exist to protect the eyes from insect prey.[1] In April 2007, a new species of frogmouth was described from the Solomon Islands and placed in a newly established genus, Rigidipenna.[2]

Their flight is weak. They rest horizontally on branches during the day, camouflaged by their cryptic plumage. Through convergent evolution as night hunters, they resemble owls, with large front-facing eyes.[citation needed]

Up to three white eggs are laid in the fork of a branch, and are incubated by the female at night and the male in the day.[citation needed]

Taxonomy

[edit]

DNA-DNA hybridisation studies had suggested that the two frogmouth groups may not be as closely related as previously thought, and that the Asian species may be separable as a new family, the Batrachostomidae.[3][4] Although frogmouths were formerly included in the order Caprimulgiformes, a 2019 study estimated the divergence between Podargus and Batrachostomus to between 30 and 50 mya and forming a clade well separated from the nightjars and being a sister group of the swifts, hummingbirds, and owlet-nightjars. The name Podargiformes proposed in 1918 by Gregory Mathews was reinstated for the clade.[5]

Species

[edit]
A pair of tawny frogmouths resting in a tree fork during the day
  • Genus Podargus
  • Genus Batrachostomus
  • Genus Rigidipenna

In culture

[edit]

In a journal article published in April 2021, researchers Katja Thömmes and Gregor Hayn-Leichsenring from the Experimental Aesthetics group at the University Hospital Jena, Germany, found the frogmouth to be the most "instagrammable" type of bird.[6] Using an algorithm to analyze the aesthetic appeal of more than 27,000 bird photographs on Instagram, they found that photos depicting frogmouths received the highest number of likes relative to the posts' exposure to users. The journal article was picked up by several news outlets, including The New York Times and The Guardian.[7]

A Tawny frogmouth, Podargus strigoides

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Frogmouth

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Frogmouths are a family of nocturnal birds (Podargidae) comprising 16 species divided among three genera (Podargus, Batrachostomus, and Rigidipenna), distributed from the across to , the , , and . These stocky, arboreal birds are distinguished by their broad, hooked bills adapted for capturing prey, short legs and weak feet, and cryptic in shades of brown, gray, , and with streaks and spots that provide exceptional against tree bark and branches. Frogmouths primarily inhabit forested environments, including subtropical and tropical moist lowland and montane forests, as well as more open woodlands, scrublands, and even urban parks in some species like the (Podargus strigoides). They are strictly nocturnal or crepuscular, spending days roosting motionless on branches or in tree hollows, often with their bills pointed upward to mimic a broken limb, a that deters predators and is a key survival strategy. Their diet consists mainly of such as beetles, moths, and spiders, supplemented by small vertebrates like frogs, , and occasionally or birds in larger species; they hunt using a sit-and-wait technique from perches or by sallying into the air. Breeding occurs in monogamous pairs, with nests built as loose platforms of sticks in tree forks, and clutches of 1 to 3 eggs, varying by species, that both parents incubate—the male by day and both at night. Vocalizations include soft, booming calls for territory and communication, along with hissing or buzzing when threatened. Though often mistaken for due to their appearance and habits, frogmouths belong to the order Podargiformes, closely related to nightjars (order Caprimulgiformes) rather than , and most species face threats from habitat loss but are generally assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN.

Taxonomy and classification

Etymology

The common name "frogmouth" refers to the birds' distinctive broad, flattened bill and wide gape, which resemble the mouth of a . The Podargidae derives its name from the genus Podargus, established by the English naturalist John Latham in 1801 when he described the (Podargus strigoides) in his Supplementum Indicis Ornithologici. The genus name Podargus originates from the podagra, meaning "" (specifically, gout in the foot), alluding to the small, weak, and somewhat swollen appearance of the birds' feet, which causes a distinctive waddling reminiscent of someone afflicted with the condition. Subsequent species in the received under Podargus and related genera; for example, Asian frogmouths were classified under Batrachostomus, a name directly combining the Greek batrakhos ("") and ("mouth") to highlight the same oral feature. This nomenclature sets frogmouths apart from superficially similar nocturnal birds like nightjars (family Caprimulgidae), whose generic name stems from Latin capra ("goat") and mulgere ("to milk"), based on a historical that they suckle from .

Phylogenetic position

Frogmouths belong to the family Podargidae within the order Podargiformes, a classification originally proposed by Gregory M. Mathews in 1918 to distinguish them from the nightjars and allies in Caprimulgiformes. This separation was traditionally based on morphological differences but has been robustly supported by modern genetic analyses, including a 2019 total-evidence study integrating molecular and morphological data that resolved Podargiformes as a distinct within the larger group , separate from Caprimulgiformes. The family Podargidae is monophyletic, forming a close phylogenetic relationship with the owlet-nightjars (family Aegothelidae) and swifts/hummingbirds (order ), as sister group to the clade ( + ). This positioning places Podargidae near the base of , a encompassing nocturnal, crepuscular, and diurnal birds, including nightjars, frogmouths, owlet-nightjars, potoos, oilbirds, swifts, and hummingbirds. The earliest known fossils attributable to frogmouths date to the early Eocene, approximately 48 million years ago, exemplified by Masillapodargus longipes from the Messel Pit in , which exhibits podargiform characteristics such as a robust bill and skeletal features adapted for perching. Molecular clock analyses indicate that Podargidae diverged from other lineages within or basal to around 60–70 million years ago, near the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, aligning with the broader radiation of following the end-Cretaceous extinction.

Genera and species

The family Podargidae comprises three genera and a total of 16 of frogmouths, distributed across and . The genus Podargus includes three , characterized by their large size, robust builds, and broad, flat bills adapted for capturing larger prey such as vertebrates in addition to ; these are primarily found in and . The are: The genus Batrachostomus is the most speciose, with 12 that are generally smaller than those in Podargus, featuring more rounded bills suited for an insectivorous diet; these forest-dwelling are endemic to , from to the and . The are:
  • Batrachostomus auritus (large frogmouth)
  • Batrachostomus harterti (Dulit frogmouth)
  • Batrachostomus septimus (Philippine frogmouth)
  • Batrachostomus stellatus (Gould's frogmouth)
  • Batrachostomus moniliger ()
  • Batrachostomus hodgsoni (Hodgson's frogmouth)
  • Batrachostomus poliolophus (short-tailed frogmouth)
  • Batrachostomus mixtus (Bornean frogmouth)
  • Batrachostomus javensis (Javan frogmouth)
  • Batrachostomus affinis (Blyth's frogmouth)
  • Batrachostomus chaseni (Palawan frogmouth)
  • Batrachostomus cornutus (Sunda frogmouth)
The monotypic Rigidipenna contains one , the Solomons frogmouth (Rigidipenna inexpectata), a rare bird restricted to the and noted for its distinct morphology separating it from other frogmouths. Taxonomic revisions in recent decades have refined boundaries within Podargidae. In 2007, the Solomons frogmouth was placed in the new Rigidipenna based on analyses of , , , and , elevating it from a of Podargus ocellatus. A 2020 genetic study utilizing complete mitochondrial genomes further supported the phylogenetic separation of the three genera, estimating an divergence across Wallace's Line and confirming the of Batrachostomus while highlighting deep splits within it.

Physical description

Morphology

Frogmouths (family Podargidae) exhibit a distinctive body plan adapted for nocturnal life, with lengths ranging from 19 to 60 cm and weights between 43 and 670 g across species. They possess a large head relative to body size, featuring a wide gape that can reach up to 5 cm in some species like the , facilitating the capture of prey. The bill is broad, flattened, and hooked at the tip, often equipped with prominent rictal bristles that help guide into the mouth during sallies. Their plumage is typically soft and cryptic, mottled in shades of gray, brown, or rufous to blend with bark and foliage, providing effective camouflage during daytime roosting. Wings are short to moderately long and rounded, while the tail is relatively long, contributing to maneuverability in low-light conditions. Flight muscles are comparatively weak, resulting in a reliance on gliding and short bursts rather than sustained powered flight. Sexual dimorphism is minimal in most species, though females may be slightly larger and exhibit brighter rufous tones in certain Asian frogmouths (genus Batrachostomus). Juveniles display softer-textured plumage than adults, which aids in insulation and integration into nest materials during early development.

Camouflage and sensory adaptations

Frogmouths exhibit remarkable cryptic plumage that serves as a primary defense mechanism against predators and aids in . Their feathers are textured and mottled in , brown, and white, closely mimicking the rough bark or moss-covered of trees, allowing them to blend seamlessly into their surroundings during the day. This is enhanced by their horizontal roosting posture, where they perch motionless with their body aligned along a , resembling a broken or snapped limb rather than a living . In some species, such as the (Podargus strigoides), color polymorphism adds further variability to this adaptation, with individuals displaying either gray or (reddish-brown) morphs. Sensory adaptations in frogmouths are finely tuned for their nocturnal lifestyle, prioritizing low-light detection over precise . Their large eyes provide enhanced sensitivity to dim light, facilitating prey detection at night, though this comes at the cost of limited and reduced compared to diurnal birds or even . Unlike owls, which possess superior stereoscopic vision for accurate prey strikes, frogmouths compensate for this trade-off through a passive sit-and-wait strategy, relying on stillness to lure close before capturing them. Auditory capabilities further bolster their sensory repertoire, with well-developed hearing that allows for localization of prey sounds in the dark. The wide gape of their bill, supported by flexible skin and rictal bristles, facilitates the rapid aerial capture of flying prey drawn to their camouflaged perch. Evolutionarily, these adaptations reflect a divergence from more active nocturnal predators like , where frogmouths' emphasis on and passive detection minimizes energy expenditure in oxygen-poor environments or during prolonged inactivity. Fossil evidence and suggest that such trade-offs arose in the , aligning with the diversification of nocturnal niches in caprimulgiform birds.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic distribution

Frogmouths (family Podargidae) are confined to the Indomalayan and Australasian biogeographic realms, with no records from , the , or other regions. The genus Podargus is primarily distributed in Australasia, occurring across , , and . In contrast, the genus Batrachostomus is restricted to Indomalaya, ranging from the through to the , while Rigidipenna is endemic to the . Within these realms, species exhibit varying degrees of and regional specificity. The (Podargus strigoides) occupies a broad range throughout continental and , from urban areas to remote woodlands. The (Batrachostomus moniliger) is endemic to the southwestern Indian and , with disjunct populations in wet forest zones from southward. is higher in Indomalaya, with 12 Batrachostomus species across islands like and , compared to three in Podargus across . Historically, frogmouth lineages diverged and dispersed across Wallace's Line during the (approximately 30–40 million years ago), originating likely in and using Pacific island arcs to reach (Australia-New Guinea). Post-Pleistocene expansions facilitated broader colonization within these realms, though some , such as the , show evidence of potential range contractions linked to human activity.

Habitat requirements

Frogmouths (family Podargidae) primarily require forested habitats that offer dense cover for roosting and , spanning tropical and subtropical regions of , , and the Indo-Pacific. Most species favor moist lowland and montane forests, where layered vegetation supports their nocturnal lifestyle and insect-based diet. These environments provide essential perching sites on horizontal branches, typically 2–10 meters above ground, allowing individuals to remain inconspicuous during the day. In , the (Podargus strigoides) exemplifies adaptability, occupying open eucalypt woodlands, savannas, heathlands, and even urban parks, but it avoids treeless deserts and extremely dense rainforests due to insufficient cover and perch availability. Asian species, such as those in the genus Batrachostomus, prefer denser in primary and secondary tropical forests, often near watercourses that attract prey. For instance, the Bornean frogmouth (Batrachostomus mixtus) inhabits forests primarily at 900–2,400 m , with occasional records down to 300 m, relying on undisturbed canopies for roosting stability. Some populations, including the (Podargus papuensis), extend into mangrove edges and moist savannas, where tidal influences enhance prey abundance. Frogmouths exhibit sensitivity to habitat alterations that reduce roost options, necessitating forests with intact mid-story layers for effective camouflage and perching. In , certain species undertake seasonal altitudinal or local movements tied to monsoon-driven changes in forest humidity and insect availability, shifting to lower elevations during drier periods. Proximity to streams or wetlands is common across taxa, as these microhabitats concentrate foraging opportunities for aerial insectivores like frogmouths.

Behavior and ecology

Daily activity and roosting

Frogmouths are predominantly nocturnal or crepuscular birds, with peak activity periods occurring at and dawn when they emerge from roosts to briefly before or after full night. During the daytime, they remain largely inactive and motionless, roosting on branches in a slouched posture that enhances their against tree bark and foliage. Pairs often share these roosts, huddling together for mutual protection and , particularly in cooler conditions. Roost selection emphasizes concealment across the , with birds choosing perches in areas of dense canopy cover that match their mottled plumage for optimal ; in like the (Podargus strigoides), this includes heights of 2–10 m above the ground. Individuals or pairs frequently switch roost sites to reduce the risk of predation, with tawny frogmouth pairs using up to 71 different locations over a season and rarely reusing the same perch for extended periods. These roosts are part of year-round territories that are defended vigorously, contributing to the ' largely sedentary with minimal migration. In response to daytime threats, such as approaching predators, frogmouths may puff up their and body to appear larger or engage in by pecking at the intruder with their beaks. This defensive display, combined with their cryptic positioning, allows them to avoid detection in most encounters while arousing from before sunrise if necessary to relocate to a safer roost.

Foraging and diet

Frogmouths employ a sit-and-wait predation strategy, typically perching motionless on branches or posts during nocturnal hours before launching short sallying flights to capture prey. This method primarily targets flying such as moths and beetles, which constitute approximately 78% of the diet in species like the (Podargus strigoides), with spiders and centipedes accounting for another 18%; Batrachostomus species are more strictly insectivorous, while Podargus occasionally take small vertebrates. In the genus Podargus, individuals occasionally pursue larger prey including frogs, mice, and small birds by dropping to the ground and chasing or pouncing, adapting to opportunities beyond aerial captures. The wide gape of frogmouths facilitates prey capture, aided by specialized rictal bristles around that act as tactile sensors to detect and guide into the mouth during low-light . These bristles likely filter and protect against struggling prey, enhancing efficiency in nocturnal hunts. Diet composition shows seasonal variation, with a shift toward more prey during periods of scarcity, such as winter, when moths and orthopterans become less abundant. Frogmouths exhibit a low metabolic rate compared to other birds, enabling through infrequent but substantial meals rather than continuous . This suits their insect-heavy diet and sit-and-wait , with no evidence of tool use or cooperative hunting behaviors. further reduces energy expenditure overnight, aligning with their overall strategy of minimal activity outside hunting bouts.

Reproduction and parental care

Frogmouths are generally monogamous, with pairs forming strong, often lifelong bonds that are maintained through shared roosting and grooming behaviors. Breeding seasons vary by and location; in temperate regions like , reproduction typically occurs in spring from August to January, peaking in September to October, while in tropical and arid areas, it can be more opportunistic, triggered by rainfall or extending year-round for some equatorial . Pairs construct shallow nests from bark, sticks, and feathers, often in forks 3-10 meters above ground, with both sexes contributing to building; nests vary by , with bulky platforms in Podargus, small cups in Batrachostomus using down and webs, and shallow stick structures in Rigidipenna. These nests are sometimes reused in subsequent seasons or adapted from those of other birds. Clutch sizes typically range from 1 to 3 white eggs, with rare reports of up to 5 in exceptional cases in Podargus . Incubation lasts approximately 30 days across the family, typically 28-32 days in Podargus species, with the male handling daytime duties and the female taking over at night to ensure constant coverage. The eggs are altricial, hatching into downy chicks that require intensive brooding; both parents alternate in shielding the young from weather and predators while one forages nocturnally. Parents regurgitate or deliver small prey items to feed the nestlings, which fledge after about 30 days, typically 25-35 days in Podargus, at about half adult weight but remain dependent on biparental provisioning for an additional 4-6 weeks, sometimes longer in family groups. Nesting success is relatively high in monitored populations, with fledging rates often reaching 70-80% in Podargus species like the , attributed to effective and vigilant defense, though risks from predation—particularly by diurnal raptors or mammals—remain significant, especially for precariously placed nests that can lead to egg or chick loss. In urban settings, some species like the exhibit even higher reproductive output due to reduced predation and abundant food, but overall, only 1-2 young typically survive per brood to independence.

Conservation

Population status

Frogmouth populations across the Podargidae family are generally stable, with the majority of species classified as Least Concern by the , reflecting large ranges and no evidence of rapid global declines. Several species were reassessed in the 2023 IUCN Red List update, with changes including the downlisting of the Sumatran frogmouth to Least Concern and the Dulit frogmouth to Least Concern. However, some localized declines occur in forest-dependent species, particularly in , where habitat loss contributes to vulnerability. Species in the genus Podargus, such as the tawny frogmouth (P. strigoides), are abundant and widespread, primarily in and , with stable s not approaching vulnerable thresholds (fewer than 10,000 mature individuals). The , for instance, is common across its extensive range, with no quantified total but estimates indicating a large, resilient trend. Similarly, the (P. papuensis) and marbled frogmouth (P. ocellatus) maintain stable statuses without significant threats. In contrast, several Batrachostomus species face regional pressures, with population sizes largely unquantified but suspected to be declining slowly in modified habitats. The large frogmouth (B. auritus) is assessed as Vulnerable (IUCN 2023), with a believed large but decreasing population due to lowland forest loss across , , , and . The Dulit frogmouth (B. harterti), restricted to Borneo's mountains (extent of occurrence 136,000 km²), is Least Concern (IUCN 2023), with limited records suggesting low densities and ongoing decline. Other Batrachostomus taxa, including the Sri Lanka frogmouth (B. moniliger) and Philippine frogmouth (B. septimus), remain Least Concern but are uncommon and data-deficient in terms of precise numbers. The Sumatran frogmouth (B. poliolophus) was downlisted to Least Concern in 2023 after reassessment, though slow declines persist at lower elevations. BirdLife International's assessments, aligned with IUCN criteria, indicate no overarching global trends for frogmouths but highlight regional vulnerabilities in , where many species lack comprehensive monitoring data.

Threats and protection

Frogmouth populations face several anthropogenic threats, with habitat loss being the most significant due to from , agricultural expansion, and urbanization. In , where many species reside, cover has declined substantially since 2000, with an estimated net loss of 14.5 million hectares in the region during the 2000s alone, driven primarily by commercial agriculture and monoculture plantations. For instance, the experiences ongoing habitat degradation from large-scale agricultural conversion in its limited range. Similarly, the in is impacted by land clearing for and intensive bushfires, which reduce suitable roosting and sites. Pesticide use poses an additional risk, particularly to insectivorous frogmouths, as these chemicals accumulate in prey and lead to indirect poisoning, especially in areas near settlements. Vehicle collisions and strikes also threaten individuals, particularly in urbanizing landscapes where frogmouths in trees adjacent to roads. These factors contribute to localized declines, though most species remain stable overall. Conservation efforts for frogmouths emphasize protection rather than international trade regulations, as the family Podargidae is not listed under . Many species are classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, reflecting their relatively wide distributions, but some, like the large frogmouth, are Vulnerable due to ongoing forest loss in . In , the benefits from legal protections under national wildlife acts and resides in protected areas such as Kakadu and Booti Booti National Parks, where preservation supports stable populations. Local laws in countries like and the safeguard forest habitats through reserves, though enforcement varies. Ongoing research utilizes non-invasive methods like camera traps to monitor data-deficient species in remote Asian forests, providing insights into population trends without disturbance. Mitigation strategies include reforestation initiatives to restore degraded woodlands and public education campaigns promoting avoidance of roost sites to minimize human interference, as implemented by organizations like Bush Heritage .

Cultural significance

In folklore and mythology

In Australian Aboriginal cultures, the tawny frogmouth (Podargus strigoides), often known as the "mopoke," holds significant roles in Dreamtime stories and traditional beliefs. In D'harawal lore from the Yandel'ora , the tawny frogmouth appears as Binnit, a brave warrior who accompanies Didjiriwa the to a great meeting at a waterhole. When falsely accused of cowardice by a deceitful figure mimicking another voice, Binnit chooses wisdom and peace over conflict, upholding the laws of the land and emphasizing values of restraint and community harmony. Among the people of , the mopoke—referring to the or similar nocturnal birds—is deeply feared as a harbinger of death and a manifestation of dark spiritual forces. Its distinctive nighttime calls are interpreted as omens signaling in the community, prompting urgent actions such as locating and killing the bird to avert the misfortune, as "if you don’t kill it first before it kills you, someone will die." These calls are also viewed as voices of night spirits or familiars employed by boylya (sorcerers or clever men), who transform into the bird to patrol campsites, monitor social behaviors, and enforce taboos against transgressions like or pre-initiation violations. The tawny frogmouth's nocturnal habits and vocalizations further symbolize connections to ancestral spirits and the unseen world in traditions, with the serving as a guardian against intruders while embodying the dangers of the night. Harming the mopoke is , as it risks invoking evil spirits or winnaitch (bad luck), reinforcing its role in maintaining through fear and respect. In , the (Batrachostomus moniliger) is linked in local to themes of mystery and stealth, attributed to its elusive, camouflaged presence in habitats, though specific omens or predictions are not widely documented.

In modern media

The has gained significant viral popularity in modern media, particularly through social platforms like , where its distinctive and expressive features have made it a favorite subject for and memes. A 2021 study analyzing over 27,000 photos from nine prominent Instagram accounts, with a combined following of nearly 3.5 million, found the tawny frogmouth to receive the highest average number of likes per photo, earning it the title of the world's most "Instagrammable" due to its emotive yellow eyes and "angry" or quirky expressions that resonate in . This online buzz has extended to memes portraying the as a grumpy or surprised character, amplifying its appeal in digital wildlife communities. In documentaries, frogmouths feature prominently in productions highlighting their nocturnal behaviors and adaptations. For instance, the 2023 series , Episode 7 ("The Human World"), showcases the 's camouflage expertise in urban and natural settings, filmed with specialized night-vision techniques to capture their elusive lives. Educational books have also elevated their profile; Gisela Kaplan's (first published in 2007 and revised in 2018) provides an in-depth, observation-based exploration of their biology and behavior, drawing on two decades of and becoming a seminal reference for ornithologists and enthusiasts. Zoo exhibits across , such as those at () and the National Zoo & Aquarium, allow public interaction through guided encounters, emphasizing the birds' role in nocturnal ecosystems and drawing visitors to learn about native wildlife. Frogmouths have been leveraged in conservation awareness campaigns to promote protection in . The biennial Guardian/BirdLife Australia Bird of the Year contest, which culminated in the tawny frogmouth's victory in 2025 after runner-up finishes in 2019, 2021, and 2023, uses public voting and media coverage to highlight threats like loss and vehicle strikes, raising funds and advocacy for bird conservation initiatives. This campaign, supported by organizations like BirdLife Australia, has spotlighted the need for urban green spaces and reduced to safeguard frogmouth populations.

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  50. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/hodgsons-frogmouth-batrachostomus-hodgsoni
  51. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/sunda-frogmouth-batrachostomus-cornutus
  52. https://australian.museum/publications/birds-storybox/first-nations-storytelling/
  53. https://www.anthropologyfromtheshed.com/owl-beliefs-in-nyungar-culture
  54. https://www.anthropologyfromtheshed.com/owl-voices-as-night-spirits-an-ethno-ornithological-approach-to-the-understanding-of-the-significance-of-night-bird-calls-and-social-control-in-traditional-nyungar-culture
  55. https://www.simplybirding.com/birds/sri-lanka-frogmouth-batrachostomus-moniliger/
  56. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/30/researchers-find-frogmouth-is-worlds-most-instagrammable-bird
  57. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/29/science/instagrammable-bird-frogmouth.html
  58. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-56946165
  59. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/295WKDzs2tmgnyPxFNHbWC1/to-the-ends-of-the-earth
  60. https://books.google.com/books/about/Tawny_Frogmouth.html?id=0PIoiWkuV6sC
  61. https://www.zoo.org.au/healesville/whats-on/animal-experiences/tawny-frogmouth-experience/
  62. https://nationalzoo.com.au/animal/tawny-frogmouth/
  63. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/oct/16/tawny-frogmouth-2025-australian-bird-year-winner
  64. https://birdlife.org.au/news/australias-2025-bird-of-the-year-the-tawny-frogmouth/
  65. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/oct/06/australian-bird-of-the-year-2023-winner-announced-swift-parrot
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