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{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 4/4 \key c \major <c e g b>1 } }
Major seventh chord on C, notated as CΔ7
{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 4/4 \key c \major <c e g>1^\markup { "C" } <c es g>1^\markup { "c" } <c e gis>1^\markup { "C+" } <c es ges>1^\markup { \concat { "c" \raise #1 \small "o" } } } }
Letters for triads built on C

Musicians use various kinds of chord names and symbols in different contexts to represent musical chords. In most genres of popular music, including jazz, pop, and rock, a chord name and its corresponding symbol typically indicate one or more of the following:

Macro analysis symbols
Triad Root Quality Example Audio
Major triad Uppercase C
Minor triad Lowercase c
Augmented triad Uppercase + C+
Diminished triad Lowercase o co
Dominant seventh Uppercase 7 C7

For instance, the name C augmented seventh, and the corresponding symbol Caug7, or C+7, are both composed of parts 1 (letter 'C'), 2 ('aug' or '+'), and 3 (digit '7'). These indicate a chord formed by the notes C–E–G♯–B♭. The three parts of the symbol (C, aug, and 7) refer to the root C, the augmented (fifth) interval from C to G♯, and the (minor) seventh interval from C to B♭.

Although they are used occasionally in classical music, typically in an educational setting for harmonic analysis, these names and symbols are "universally used in jazz and popular music",[1] in lead sheets, fake books, and chord charts, to specify the chords that make up the chord progression of a song or other piece of music. A typical sequence of a jazz or rock song in the key of C major might indicate a chord progression such as

C – Am – Dm – G7.

This chord progression instructs the performer to play, in sequence, a C major triad, an A minor chord, a D minor chord, and a G dominant seventh chord. In a jazz context, players have the freedom to add sevenths, ninths, and higher extensions to the chord. In some pop, rock and folk genres, triads are generally performed unless specified in the chord chart.

Purpose

[edit]

These chord symbols are used by musicians for a number of purposes. Chord-playing instrumentalists in the rhythm section, such as pianists, use these symbols to guide their improvised performance of chord voicings and fills. A rock or pop guitarist or keyboardist might literally play the chords as indicated (e.g., the C major chord would be played by playing the notes C, E and G at the same time). In jazz, particularly for music from the 1940s bebop era or later, players typically have latitude to add in the sixth, seventh, and/or ninth of the chord. Jazz chord voicings often omit the root (leaving it to the bass player) and fifth. As such, a jazz guitarist might voice the C major chord with the notes E, A and D—which are the third, sixth, and ninth of the chord. The bassist (electric bass or double bass) uses the chord symbols to help improvise a bass line that outlines the chords, often by emphasizing the root and other key scale tones (third, fifth, and in a jazz context, the seventh).

The lead instruments, such as a saxophonist or lead guitarist, use the chord chart to guide their improvised solos. The instrumentalist improvising a solo may use scales that work well with certain chords or chord progressions, according to the chord-scale system. For example, in rock and blues soloing, the pentatonic scale built on the root note is widely used to solo over straightforward chord progressions that use I, IV, and V chords (in the key of C major, these would be the chords C, F, and G7).

In a journal of the American Composers Forum the use of letters to indicate chords is defined as, "a reductive analytical system that views music via harmonic motion to and from a target chord or tonic".[2] In 2003 Benjamin, Horvit, and Nelson describe the use of letters to indicate chord root as, "popular music ([and/specifically] jazz) lead sheet symbols."[3] The use of letters, "is an analytical technique that may be employed along with, or instead of, more conventional methods of analysis such as Roman numeral analysis. The system employs letter names to indicate the roots of chords, accompanied by specific symbols to depict chord quality."[4]

Other notation systems for chords include:[5]

Chord quality

[edit]
See also: Major and minor

Chord qualities are related to the qualities of the component intervals that define the chord. The main chord qualities are:

Some of the symbols used for chord quality are similar to those used for interval quality:

  • No symbol, or sometimes M or Maj for major
  • m, or min for minor
  • aug or Aug for augmented
  • dim for diminished

In addition,

  • Δ is used for major seventh,[a] instead of the standard M, or maj
  • − is sometimes used for minor, instead of the standard m or min
  • a lowercase root note is sometimes used for minor, e.g. c instead of Cm
  • + is used for augmented (A is not used, but sometimes Aug is used, e.g. Aug6)
  • o is for diminished (d is not used)
  • ø is used for half-diminished
  • dom may occasionally be used for dominant

Chord qualities are sometimes omitted. When specified, they appear immediately after the root note or, if the root is omitted, at the beginning of the chord name or symbol. For instance, in the symbol Cm7 (C minor seventh chord) C is the root and m is the chord quality. When the terms minor, major, augmented, diminished, or the corresponding symbols do not appear immediately after the root note, or at the beginning of the name or symbol, they should be considered interval qualities, rather than chord qualities. For instance, in CmM7 (minor major seventh chord), m is the chord quality and M refers to the scale degree 7 interval.

Major, minor, augmented, and diminished chords

[edit]

Three-note chords are called triads. There are four basic triads (major, minor, augmented, diminished). They are all tertian—which means defined by the root, a third, and a fifth. Since most other chords are made by adding one or more notes to these triads, the name and symbol of a chord is often built by just adding an interval number to the name and symbol of a triad. For instance, a C augmented seventh chord is a C augmented triad with an extra note defined by a minor seventh interval:

C+ 7 = C+ + ♭scale degree 7
augmented
seventh chord		 augmented
triad		 minor
seventh

In this case, the quality of the additional interval is omitted. Less often, the full name or symbol of the additional interval (minor, in the example) is provided. For instance, a C augmented major seventh chord is a C augmented triad with an extra note defined by a major seventh interval:

C+Δ 7 = C+ + scale degree 7
augmented major
seventh chord		 augmented
triad		 major
seventh

In both cases, the quality of the chord is the same as the quality of the basic triad it contains. This is not true for all chord qualities: the chord qualities half-diminished and dominant refer not only to the quality of the basic triad but also the quality of the additional intervals.

Altered fifths

[edit]

A more complex approach is sometimes used to name and denote augmented and diminished chords. An augmented triad can be viewed as a major triad in which the perfect fifth interval (spanning 7 semitones) has been substituted with an augmented fifth (8 semitones). A diminished triad can be viewed as a minor triad in which the perfect fifth has been substituted with a diminished fifth (6 semitones). In this case, the augmented triad can be named major triad sharp five, or major triad augmented fifth (M♯5, M+5, majaug5). Similarly, the diminished triad can be named minor triad flat five, or minor triad diminished fifth (m♭5, mo5, mindim5).

Again, the terminology and notation used for triads affects the terminology and notation used for larger chords, formed by four or more notes. For instance, the above-mentioned C augmented major seventh chord, is sometimes called C major seventh sharp five, or C major seventh augmented fifth. The corresponding symbol is CM7+5, CM7♯5, or Cmaj7aug5:

CM7+5 = C + M3 + A5 + M7
augmented
chord		 chord
root		 major
interval		 augmented
interval		 major
interval
(In chord symbols, the symbol A, used for augmented intervals, is typically replaced by + or ♯)

In this case, the chord is viewed as a C major seventh chord (CM7) in which the third note is an augmented fifth from root (G♯), rather than a perfect fifth from root (G). All chord names and symbols including altered fifths, i.e., augmented (♯5, +5, aug5) or diminished (♭5, o5, dim5) fifths can be interpreted in a similar way.

Common types of chords

[edit]

Triads

[edit]
{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 4/4 \key c \major <c e g>1^\markup { "C" } <c es g>^\markup { "C–" } <c e gis>^\markup { "C+" } <c es ges>^\markup { \concat { "C" \raise #1 \small "o" } } } }
The four triads, all built on C: major (C), minor (C–), augmented (C+), and diminished (Co)

As shown in the table below, there are four triads, each made up of the root, the third (either major [M3] or minor [m3]) above the root, and the fifth (perfect [P5], augmented [A5], or diminished [d5]) above the root. The table below shows the names, symbols, and definition for the four triads, using C as the root.

Name Semi-
tones
[citation needed] 		Symbols (on C) Definitions
Short Long Altered
fifth 		Component intervals Notes
(on C)
Third Fifth
Major triad 047 C
CM[b]
CΔ[a]		 Cmaj[b] M3 P5 C–E–G
Minor triad 037 Cm
C−		 Cmin m3 P5 C–E♭–G
Augmented triad
(major triad sharp five) 		048 C+ Caug CM♯5
CM+5		 M3 A5 C–E–G♯
Diminished triad
(minor triad flat five) 		036 Co Cdim Cm♭5
Cmo5		 m3 d5 C–E♭–G♭

Seventh chords

[edit]
{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 4/4 \key c \major <c e g b>1^\markup { \concat { "C" \raise #1 \small "Δ7" } } <c e g bes>^\markup { \concat { "C" \raise #1 \small "7" } } <c es g bes>^\markup { \concat { "C–" \raise #1 \small "7" } } <c es ges bes>^\markup { \concat { "C" \raise #1 \small "ø7" } } <c es ges beses>^\markup { \concat { "C" \raise #1 \small "o7" } } } }
Five of the most common seventh chord, all built on C: major (CΔ7), dominant (C7), minor (C–7), half-diminished (Cø7), and diminished (Co7)

A seventh chord is a triad with a seventh. The seventh is either a major seventh [M7] above the root, a minor seventh [m7] above the root (flatted 7th), or a diminished seventh [d7] above the root (double flatted 7th). Note that the diminished seventh note is enharmonically equivalent to the major sixth above the root of the chord.

The table below shows the names, symbols, and definitions for the various kinds of seventh chords, using C as the root.

Name Semi-
tones
[citation needed] 		Symbols (on C) Definitions
Short Long Altered
fifth 		Component intervals Notes (on C)
Third Fifth Seventh
Dominant seventh 047X C7
CMm7		 Cmaj♭7
Cmajm7		 M3 P5 m7 C–E–G–B♭
Major seventh 047N CM7
CMa7
Cmaj7
CΔ7
CΔ[a] 		Cmaj7 M3 P5 M7 C–E–G–B
Minor-major seventh 037N CmM7
Cm♯7
C−M7
C−Δ7
C−Δ 		Cminmaj7 m3 P5 M7 C–E♭–G–B
Minor seventh 037X Cm7
C–7		 Cmin7 m3 P5 m7 C–E♭–G–B♭
Augmented-major seventh
(major seventh sharp five) 		048N C+M7
C+Δ		 Caugmaj7 CM7♯5
CM7+5
CΔ♯5
CΔ+5 		M3 A5 M7 C–E–G♯–B
Augmented seventh
(dominant seventh sharp five) 		048X C+7 Caug7 C7♯5
C7+5 		M3 A5 m7 C–E–G♯–B♭
Half-diminished seventh
(minor seventh flat five) 		036X Cø
Cø7 		Cmin7dim5 Cm7♭5
Cm7o5
C−7♭5
C−7o5 		m3 d5 m7 C–E♭–G♭–B♭
Diminished seventh 0369 Co7 Cdim7 m3 d5 d7 C–E♭–G♭–Bdouble flat
Dominant seventh flat five 046X C7♭5 C7dim5 M3 d5 m7 C–E–G♭–B♭

Extended chords

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Extended chords add further notes to seventh chords. Of the seven notes in the major scale, a seventh chord uses only four (the root, third, fifth, and seventh). The other three notes (the second, fourth, and sixth) can be added in any combination; however, just as with the triads and seventh chords, notes are most commonly stacked – a seventh implies that there is a fifth and a third and a root. In practice, especially in jazz, certain notes can be omitted without changing the quality of the chord. In a jazz ensemble with a bass player, the chord-playing instrumentalists (guitar, organ, piano, etc.) can omit the root, as the bass player typically plays it.

Ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords are known as extended tertian chords. These notes are enharmonically equivalent to the second, fourth, and sixth, respectively, except they are more than an octave above the root. However, this does not mean that they must be played in the higher octave. Although changing the octave of certain notes in a chord (within reason) does change the way the chord sounds, it does not change the essential characteristics or tendency of it. Accordingly, using the ninth, eleventh, or thirteenth in chord notation implies that the chord is an extended tertian chord rather than an added chord.

The convention is that using an odd number (7, 9, 11, or 13) implies that all the other lower odd numbers are also included. Thus C13 implies that 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 are also there. Using an even number such as 6, implies that only that one extra note has been added to the base triad e.g. 1, 3, 5, 6. Remember that this is theory, so in practice they do not have to be played in that ascending order e.g. 5, 1, 6, 3. Also, to resolve the clash between the third and eleventh, one of them may be deleted or separated by an octave. Another way to resolve might be to convert the chord to minor by lowering the third, which generates a clash between the ♭3 and the 9.

Ninth chords

[edit]
{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 4/4 \key c \major <c e g b d>1^\markup { \concat { "C" \raise #1 \small "Δ9" } } <c e g bes d>^\markup { \concat { "C" \raise #1 \small "9" } } <c e g bes des>^\markup { \concat { "C" \raise #1 \small "7♭9" } } <c es g bes d>^\markup { \concat { "C–" \raise #1 \small "9" } } } }
Four of the most common ninth chords, all built on C: major (CΔ9), dominant (C9), dominant minor ninth (C7♭9), and minor (C–9)

Ninth chords are built by adding a ninth to a seventh chord, either a major ninth [M9] or a minor ninth [m9]. A ninth chord includes the seventh; without the seventh, the chord is not an extended chord but an added tone chord—in this case, an add 9. Ninths can be added to any chord but are most commonly seen with major, minor, and dominant seventh chords. The most commonly omitted note for a voicing is the perfect fifth.

The table below shows the names, symbols, and definitions for the various kinds of ninth chords, using C as the root.

Name Semi-
tones
[citation needed] 		Symbols (on C) Quality of
added 9th 		Notes (on C)
Short Long
Major ninth 047N2 CM9
CΔ9 		Cmaj9 M9 C–E–G–B–D
Dominant ninth 047X2 C9 M9 C–E–G–B♭–D
Dominant minor ninth 047X1 C7♭9 m9 C–E–G–B♭–D♭
Minor-major ninth 037N2 CmM9
C−M9 		Cminmaj9 M9 C–E♭–G–B–D
Minor ninth 037X2 Cm9
C−9 		Cmin9 M9 C–E♭–G–B♭–D
Augmented major ninth 048N2 C+M9 Caugmaj9 M9 C–E–G♯–B–D
Augmented dominant ninth 048X2 C+9
C9♯5 		Caug9 M9 C–E–G♯–B♭–D
Half-diminished ninth 036X2 Cø9 M9 C–E♭–G♭–B♭–D
Half-diminished minor ninth 036X1 Cø♭9 m9 C–E♭–G♭–B♭–D♭
Diminished ninth 03692 Co9 Cdim9 M9 C–E♭–G♭–Bdouble flat–D
Diminished minor ninth 03691 Co♭9 Cdim♭9 m9 C–E♭–G♭–Bdouble flat–D♭

Eleventh chords

[edit]
{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 4/4 \key c \major <c e g bes d f>1^\markup { \concat { "C" \raise #1 \small "11" } } <c e g b d f>^\markup { \concat { "CM" \raise #1 \small "11" } } <c ees g bes d f>^\markup { \concat { "C–" \raise #1 \small "11" } } } }
Three eleventh chords, all built on C: an eleventh chord (C11), a major eleventh chord (CM11), and a minor eleventh chord (C–11)

Eleventh chords are theoretically ninth chords with the 11th (or fourth) added. However, it is common to leave certain notes out. The major third is often omitted because of a strong dissonance with the 11th, making the third an avoid note.[citation needed] Omission of the third reduces an 11th chord to the corresponding 9sus4 chord (suspended 9th chord[7]). Similarly, omission of the third as well as fifth in C11 results in a major chord with alternate base B♭/C, which is characteristic in soul and gospel music. For instance:

C11 without 3rd = C–(E)–G–B♭–D–F ➡ C–F–G–B♭–D = C9sus4
C11 without 3rd and 5th = C–(E)–(G)–B♭–D–F ➡ C–F–B♭–D = B♭/C

If the ninth is omitted, the chord is no longer an extended chord but an added tone chord. Without the third, this added tone chord becomes a 7sus4 (suspended 7th chord). For instance:

C11 without 9th = C7add11 = C–E–G–B♭–(D)–F
C7add11 without 3rd = C–(E)–G–B♭–(D)–F ➡ C–F–G–B♭ = C7sus4

The table below shows the names, symbols, and definitions for the various kinds of eleventh chords, using C as the root.

Name semi-
tones 		Symbols (on C) Quality of
added 11th 		Notes (on C)
Short Long
Eleventh 047X25 C11 P11 C–E–G–B♭–D–F
Major eleventh 047N25 CM11 Cmaj11 P11 C–E–G–B–D–F
Minor major eleventh 037N25 CmM11
C−M11 		Cminmaj11 P11 C–E♭–G–B–D–F
Minor eleventh 037X25 Cm11
C−11 		Cmin11 P11 C–E♭–G–B♭–D–F
Augmented major eleventh 048N25 C+M11 Caugmaj11 P11 C–E–G♯–B–D–F
Augmented eleventh 048X25 C+11
C11♯5 		Caug11 P11 C–E–G♯–B♭–D–F
Half-diminished eleventh 036X25 Cø11 P11 C–E♭–G♭–B♭–D–F
Diminished eleventh 036925 Co11 Cdim11 P11 C–E♭–G♭–Bdouble flat–D–F

Alterations from the natural diatonic chords can be specified as C9♯11, A♭M9♯11 ... etc. Omission of the fifth in a raised 11th chord reduces its sound to a ♭5 chord.[8]

C9♯11 = C–E–(G)–B♭–D–F♯ ➡ C–E–G♭–B♭–D = C9♭5.

Thirteenth chords

[edit]
{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 4/4 \key c \major <c e g bes d f a>1^\markup { \concat { "C" \raise #1 \small "13" } } <c e g b d f a>^\markup { \concat { "CM" \raise #1 \small "13" } } <c ees g bes d f a>^\markup { \concat { "C–" \raise #1 \small "13" } } } }
Three thirteenth chords, all built on C: a thirteenth chord (C13), a major thirteenth chord (CM13), and a minor thirteenth chord (C–13)

Thirteenth chords are theoretically eleventh chords with the 13th (or sixth) added. In other words, theoretically they are formed by all the seven notes of a diatonic scale at once. Again, it is common to leave certain notes out. After the fifth, the most commonly omitted note is the 11th (fourth). The ninth (second) may also be omitted. A very common voicing on guitar for a 13th chord is just the root, third, seventh and 13th (or sixth). For example: C–E–(G)–B♭–(D)–(F)–A, or C–E–(G)–A–B♭–(D)–(F). On the piano, this is usually voiced C–B♭–E–A.

The table below shows the names, symbols, and definitions for some thirteenth chords, using C as the root.

Name semi-
tones 		Symbols (on C) Quality of
added 13th 		Notes (on C)
Short Long
Major thirteenth 047N259 CM13
CΔ13 		Cmaj13 M13 C–E–G–B–D–F–A
Thirteenth 047X259 C13 M13 C–E–G–B♭–D–F–A
Minor major thirteenth 037N259 CmM13
C−M13 		Cminmaj13 M13 C–E♭–G–B–D–F–A
Minor thirteenth 037X259 Cm13
C−13 		Cmin13 M13 C–E♭–G–B♭–D–F–A
Augmented major thirteenth 048N259 C+M13 Caugmaj13 M13 C–E–G♯–B–D–F–A
Augmented thirteenth 048X259 C+13
C13♯5 		Caug13 M13 C–E–G♯–B♭–D–F–A
Half-diminished thirteenth 036X259 Cø13 M13 C–E♭–G♭–B♭–D–F–A

Alterations from the natural diatonic chords can be specified as C11♭13, Gm11♭9♭13 ... etc.

Added tone chords

[edit]
{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 4/4 \key c \major <c e g d'>1 } }
Added ninth chord built on C, written as Cadd 9

There are two ways to show that a chord is an added tone chord, and it is very common to see both methods on the same score. One way is to simply use the word 'add', for example, Cadd 9. The second way is to use 2 instead of 9, implying that it is not a seventh chord, for instance, C2. Note that this provides other ways of showing a ninth chord, for instance, C7add 9, C7add 2, or C7/9. Generally however, this is shown as simply C9, which implies a seventh in the chord. Added tone chord notation is useful with seventh chords to indicate partial extended chords, for example, C7add 13, which indicates that the 13th is added to the 7th, but without the 9th and 11th.

The use of 2, 4, and 6 rather than 9, 11, and 13 indicates that the chord does not include a seventh unless explicitly specified. However, this does not mean that these notes must be played within an octave of the root, nor the extended notes in seventh chords should be played outside of the octave, although it is commonly the case. 6 is particularly common in a minor sixth chord (also known as minor/major sixth chord, as the 6 refers to a major sixth interval).

{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 4/4 \key c \major <c e g a d>1 } }
6/9 chord built on C, written as C6/9

It is possible to have added tone chords with more than one added note. The most commonly encountered of these are 6/9 chords, which are basic triads with the sixth and second notes of the scale added. These can be confusing because of the use of 9, yet the chord does not include the seventh. A good rule of thumb is that if any added note is less than 7, then no seventh is implied, even if there are some notes shown as greater than 7.

Suspended chords

[edit]
{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 4/4 \key c \major <c d g>1 <c f g>1 } }
sus2 and sus4 chords built on C, written as Csus2 and Csus4, respectively

Suspended chords are notated with the symbols "sus4" or "sus2". When "sus" is alone, the suspended fourth chord is implied. This "sus" indication can be combined with any other notation. For example, the notation C9sus4 refers to a ninth chord with the third replaced by the fourth: C–F–G–B♭–D. However, the major third can also be added as a tension above the fourth to "colorize" the chord: C–F–G–B♭–D–E. A sus4 chord with the added major third (sometimes called a major 10th) can also be voiced quartally as C–F–B♭–E.

Power chords

[edit]

Though power chords are not true chords per se, as the term "chord" is generally defined as three or more different pitch classes sounded simultaneously, and a power chord contains only two (the root, the fifth, and often a doubling of the root at the octave), power chords are still expressed using a version of chord notation. Most commonly, power chords (e.g., C–G–C) are expressed using a "5" (e.g., C5). Power chords are also referred to as fifth chords, indeterminate chords, or neutral chords[citation needed] (not to be confused with the quarter tone neutral chord, a stacking of two neutral thirds, e.g. C–Ehalf flat–G) since they are inherently neither major nor minor; generally, a power chord refers to a specific doubled-root, three-note voicing of a fifth chord.

To represent an extended neutral chord, e.g., a seventh (C–G–B♭), the chord is expressed as its corresponding extended chord notation with the addition of the words "no3rd," "no3" or the like. The aforementioned chord, for instance, could be indicated with C7no3.

Slash chords

[edit]
{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \time 4/4 \key c \major <e g c>1 <g c e> } }
First- and second-inversion C major triads, written as C/E and C/G

An inverted chord is a chord with a bass note that is a chord tone but not the root of the chord. Inverted chords are noted as slash chords with the note after the slash being the bass note. For instance, the notation C/E bass indicates a C major triad in first inversion i.e. a C major triad with an E in the bass. Likewise the notation C/G bass indicates that a C major chord with a G in the bass (second inversion).

See figured bass for alternate method of notating specific notes in the bass.

Upper structures are notated in a similar manner to inversions, except that the bass note is not necessarily a chord tone. For example:

  • C/A♭ bass (A♭–C–E–G), which is equivalent to A♭M7♯5,
  • C♯/E bass (E–G♯–C♯–E♯), and
  • Am/D bass (D–A–C–E).

Chord notation in jazz usually gives a certain amount of freedom to the player for how the chord is voiced, also adding tensions (e.g., 9th) at the player's discretion. Therefore, upper structures are most useful when the composer wants musicians to play a specific tension array.

These are also commonly referred as "slash chords". A slash chord is simply a chord placed on top of a different bass note. For example:

  • D/F♯ is a D chord with F♯ in the bass, and
  • A/C♯ is an A chord with C♯ in the bass.

Slash chords generally do not indicate a simple inversion (which is usually left to the chord player's discretion anyway), especially considering that the specified bass note may not be part of the chord to play on top. The bass note may be played instead of or in addition to the chord's usual root note, though the root note, when played, is likely to be played only in a higher octave to avoid "colliding" with the new bass note.

Polychords

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Polychords, as the name suggests, are combinations of two or more chords. The most commonly found form of a polychord is a bichord (two chords played simultaneously) and is written as follows: ⁠upper chord/lower chord⁠, for example: ⁠B/C⁠ (C–E–G—B–D♯–F♯).

Other symbols

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The right slash (/) or diagonal line written above the staff where chord symbols occur is used to indicate a beat during which the most recent chord symbol is understood to continue. It is used to help make uneven harmonic rhythms more readable. For example, if written above a measure of standard time, "C / F G" would mean that the C chord symbol lasts two beats while F and G last one beat each. The slash is separated from the surrounding chord symbols so as not to be confused with the chord-over-a-bass-note notation that also uses a slash. Some fake books extend this slash rhythm notation further by indicating chords that are held as a whole note with a diamond, and indicating unison rhythm section rhythmic figures with the appropriate note heads and stems.

Examples of a simile and double simile marks
Simile marks

A simile mark in the middle of an otherwise empty measure tells the musician to repeat the chord or chords of the preceding measure. When seen with two slashes instead of one it indicates that the previous measure's chords should be repeated for two further measures, called a double simile, and is placed on the measure line between the two empty bars. It simplifies the job of both the music reader (who can quickly scan ahead to the next chord change) and the copyist (who doesn't need to repeat every chord symbol).

The chord notation N.C. indicates the musician should play no chord. The duration of this symbol follows the same rules as a regular chord symbol. This is used by composers and songwriters to indicate that the chord-playing musicians (guitar, keyboard, etc.) and the bass player should stop accompanying for the length covered by the "No Chord" symbol. Often the "No Chord" symbol is used to enable a solo singer or solo instrumentalist to play a pickup to a new section or an interlude without accompaniment.

An even more stringent indication for the band to tacet (stop playing) is the marking solo break. In jazz and popular music, this indicates that the entire band, including the drummer and percussionist, should stop playing to allow a solo instrumentalist to play a short cadenza, often one or two bars long. This rhythm section tacet creates a change of texture and gives the soloist great rhythmic freedom to speed up, slow down, or play with a varied tempo.

See also

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Notes

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Sources

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  1. ^ Benward, Bruce; Saker, Marilyn Nadine (2003). Music in Theory and Practice (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. p. 78. ISBN 0072942622. OCLC 61691613.
  2. ^ "The Forum". Sounding Board. Vol. 28. 2001. p. 18.
  3. ^ Benjamin, Thomas; Horvit, Michael; Nelson, Robert (2008) [2003]. Techniques and Materials of Music (Seventh ed.). Thomson Schirmer. pp. 183–186. ISBN 978-0-495-18977-0.
  4. ^ Benward, Bruce; Saker, Marilyn (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice. Vol. I (Seventh ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 74–75. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0.
  5. ^ Benward & Saker, p. 77.
  6. ^ Schoenberg, Arnold (1983). Structural Functions of Harmony, pp. 1–2. Faber and Faber. 0393004783
  7. ^ Aikin, Jim (2004). A Player's Guide to Chords and Harmony: Music Theory for Real-World Musicians (1st ed.). San Francisco: Backbeat Books. pp. 104. ISBN 0879307986. OCLC 54372433.
  8. ^ Aikin, p. 94.

Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Chord notation

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from Grokipedia
Chord notation, also known as chord symbols or lead-sheet notation, is a symbolic system in music theory used to represent the harmonic structure of chords without requiring full staff notation. Originating from Baroque-era and evolving in the through and practices, it specifies the root note, chord quality (such as major, minor, diminished, or augmented), extensions (like sevenths, ninths, or elevenths), alterations to intervals, and any non-root , enabling performers to interpret and realize the flexibly in genres like , , and contemporary composition. This notation is placed above the staff in lead sheets, providing essential harmonic guidance alongside a while omitting details of , voicing, or exact note arrangement to encourage and adaptation. The core of chord notation begins with an uppercase letter denoting the root pitch, such as C for the note C, which by default implies a major triad (C-E-G). Chord quality is modified by suffixes: m, min, or - for minor triads (e.g., Cm for C-E♭-G); °, o, or dim for diminished triads (e.g., C° for C-E♭-G♭); and + or aug for augmented triads (e.g., C+ for C-E-G♯). Seventh chords extend this by adding interval indicators, including 7 for dominant seventh (major triad with minor seventh, e.g., C7 for C-E-G-B♭), m7 for minor seventh (e.g., Cm7 for C-E♭-G-B♭), maj7 or Δ7 for major seventh (e.g., Cmaj7 for C-E-G-B), °7 or dim7 for fully diminished seventh (e.g., C°7 for C-E♭-G♭-B♭♭), and m7♭5 for half-diminished (e.g., Cm7♭5 for C-E♭-G♭-B♭). Extensions beyond the seventh, such as ninths (9), elevenths (11), or thirteenths (13), are added to imply a fuller harmonic stack including all intervening intervals (e.g., C13 denotes C-E-G-B♭-D-F-A). Alterations to these extensions use like ♭ or ♯ (e.g., C7♭9 for C-E-G-B♭-D♭), while inversions are indicated by a slash followed by the (e.g., C/ for a C major triad with E in the bass). This system, influenced by functional and rooted in 20th-century practices, allows for efficient communication of complex progressions and is analyzed by identifying the root through interval stacking and quality via third-to-fifth measurements.

Fundamentals

Purpose and Applications

Chord notation serves as a concise for representing musical , employing letters to denote root pitches, numbers for intervals or extensions, and symbols for alterations or qualities. This allows musicians to quickly identify and construct chords without relying solely on full staff notation, facilitating efficient communication of harmonic structures in various musical contexts. In , chord notation traces its roots to , a practice that emerged during the era (approximately –) as a method for keyboardists and continuo players to realize improvised accompaniments based on bass lines and interval indications. This evolved into more analytical tools like for functional in music education and composition. In contrast, modern letter-based chord symbols became prominent in the 20th century through the rise of and , originating from the publishing boom in the first half of the century. Chord symbols first appeared in the mid-1920s with ukulele added to song sheets for amateur players, evolving in the 1930s to include indications, with one of the earliest printed uses in Ferde Grofé's 1924 arrangement for Paul Whiteman's band. In jazz and pop genres, these symbols underpin lead sheets, enabling improvisational freedom for rhythm section players like pianists and guitarists to interpret and vary voicings during live performances. Additionally, in music theory, chord notation supports harmonic analysis, helping composers and analysts dissect progressions across genres. The primary benefits of chord notation lie in its efficiency for real-time musical collaboration, allowing performers to read and adapt harmonies swiftly without prior rehearsal, which is essential for improvisation, arrangement, and ensemble work. This streamlined approach enhances accessibility, enabling musicians from diverse backgrounds to share and interpret harmonic ideas universally, from classical realizations to contemporary songwriting.

Basic Structure of Chord Symbols

Chord symbols in music notation provide a concise way to represent , primarily through three core components: the note, the modifier, and extensions indicated by numbers for intervals above the . The note forms the foundation and is denoted by an uppercase letter from A to G, optionally followed by a sharp (♯) or flat (♭) symbol, such as C or F♯. The modifier specifies the chord's triad type relative to the ; for instance, no modifier implies a major triad, while a lowercase "m" indicates a triad. Extensions, such as the numeral "7," add notes beyond the basic triad, representing the seventh interval unless otherwise altered. Standard conventions for these symbols emphasize simplicity and readability in ensemble settings. An uppercase root letter alone denotes a major chord, as in C for a C major triad comprising the notes C, E, and G. For minor chords, the root is followed immediately by "m," yielding Cm for C minor (C, E♭, G). Numerical extensions follow the quality modifier, with Arabic numerals indicating scale degrees above the root; for example, C7 specifies a C major triad plus a minor seventh (C, E, G, B♭). These conventions allow performers, particularly in jazz and popular music, to interpret and voice the chord flexibly while maintaining harmonic consistency. Variations in chord notation arise across musical genres, reflecting differing analytical needs. In popular and contexts, the letter-based system described above predominates for its directness in lead sheets. By contrast, theory often employs to indicate chord function relative to the key, such as I for the tonic major or ii for the minor, prioritizing relational over . This distinction underscores how letter symbols focus on specific pitches, while emphasize tonal relationships. When reading chord symbols, their placement above the musical staff signals that the indicated should be performed simultaneously with the underlying or , typically centered over the beat where the chord changes. In notation, a symbol remains active until superseded by the next one, integrating seamlessly with staff notation to guide without prescribing exact voicings. This positioning ensures clarity in performance, linking the symbolic to the visual and temporal flow of the score.

Chord Qualities

Major and Minor Chords

Major chords are the foundational consonant triads in Western music, denoted by a single uppercase letter representing the root note, such as C for the C major chord consisting of the root, a major third, and a perfect fifth. This notation assumes the major quality as the default in lead-sheet symbols, where no additional modifiers are needed. The intervallic structure features a major third (four semitones above the root) stacked with a perfect fifth (seven semitones above the root), creating a bright, stable sonority, as in C-E-G. Minor chords, in contrast, convey a darker, more introspective quality and are notated with the root letter followed by "m" (e.g., Cm for ), a dash (C-), or historically "min" (Cmin), all indicating a , , and . The interval spans three semitones from the , followed by the at seven semitones, yielding structures like C-E♭-G. These symbols derive from lead-sheet conventions independent of key signatures, prioritizing simplicity for performers. In diatonic contexts within major keys, major chords frequently appear as the I (tonic) and IV (subdominant) functions, providing harmonic stability and resolution, such as C major and F major in the key of C. Minor chords, meanwhile, often serve as ii, iii, or vi degrees, contributing tension and color to progressions while maintaining consonance. This usage underscores their roles in building foundational harmonic frameworks across genres like classical, jazz, and pop.

Augmented and Diminished Chords

Augmented chords, also known as augmented triads, consist of a root, a major third (four semitones above the root), and an augmented fifth (eight semitones above the root). The augmented fifth is one semitone larger than the perfect fifth found in major and minor triads. In chord notation, augmented triads are typically symbolized by adding a plus sign (+) after the root or using the suffix "aug," such as C+ or Caug for the chord built on C (C-E-G♯). Diminished chords, or diminished triads, are formed by a , a minor third (three s above the ), and a diminished fifth (six s above the ). The diminished fifth is one smaller than the , creating a dissonant distinct from the minor triad. Notation for diminished triads includes the suffix "dim" or a (°), as in Cdim or C° for the chord on C (C-E♭-G♭). The half-diminished chord, a related structure at the triad level with an added , is notated as m7♭5, such as Cm7♭5 (C-E♭-G♭-B♭). These chords derive their tense, unstable qualities from the altered fifths, contrasting the diatonic stability of major and minor triads. In classical music, diminished triads often function as leading-tone chords (vii°), providing chromatic resolution to the tonic or other diatonic harmonies. Augmented and diminished chords also appear in chromatic harmony to heighten tension, such as in jazz progressions where they serve as passing or substitute chords to create dissonance before resolving.

Seventh and Extended Chords

Dominant and Non-Dominant Seventh Chords

Seventh chords extend the basic triad by adding a fourth note, typically a seventh interval above the , creating richer textures in music. These chords are classified based on the quality of the triad and the type of seventh interval, leading to distinctions between dominant and non-dominant varieties. The dominant seventh, a major-minor seventh chord, features a major triad with a , while non-dominant types include major sevenths (major triad with major seventh), minor sevenths (minor triad with ), half-diminished sevenths ( with ), and fully diminished sevenths ( with ). This differentiation affects both notation and , with dominant sevenths providing strong tension for resolution and non-dominants offering subtler color. The is notated simply as a root followed by the numeral 7, such as C7 for the chord built on C. It comprises the , a major third (4 semitones above the ), a (7 semitones above the ), and a (10 semitones above the ). This structure, often referred to as a major-minor seventh, introduces dissonance through the , which lies a half step below the . In lead sheets and notation, the symbol 7 alone implies this dominant quality when the root is specified, distinguishing it from other seventh types. Non-dominant seventh chords vary in notation and interval content to reflect their triad qualities. The major seventh chord uses symbols like Cmaj7 or CM7 (sometimes △7), consisting of a major triad plus a major seventh interval of 11 semitones above the root, resulting in a brighter, more stable sound than the dominant. The minor seventh, notated as Cm7, builds on a minor triad (root, minor third at 3 semitones, perfect fifth) with a minor seventh (10 semitones), providing a mellow, introspective tone common in minor keys. The half-diminished seventh, notated as Cm7♭5 or Cø7, consists of a diminished triad (root, minor third at 3 semitones, diminished fifth at 6 semitones) plus a minor seventh (10 semitones), offering a tense yet subdued quality often used in minor key progressions. The fully diminished seventh, symbolized as Cdim7 or C°7, stacks three minor thirds for an interval progression of root to minor third (3 semitones), diminished fifth (6 semitones), and diminished seventh (9 semitones), yielding intense dissonance. In terms of function, the dominant seventh chord, particularly as the V7 in a key, generates strong pull toward resolution due to its tritone between the third and seventh, which demands voice leading to the tonic chord (I or i). This resolutive quality makes it essential in functional harmony for creating forward momentum and closure. Non-dominant seventh chords, by contrast, serve primarily to enhance harmonic color and depth without the same imperative for resolution; for instance, the Imaj7 adds lushness to tonic functions, while ii7 or vi7 supports pre-dominant or plagal progressions with added tension that dissipates more gently, and iiø7 provides subtle dissonance in minor keys. Fully diminished sevenths often act as leading-tone substitutes, heightening instability in passing but resolving flexibly beyond just the tonic.

Ninth, Eleventh, and Thirteenth Chords

Ninth chords extend the dominant seventh chord by adding the ninth interval above the root, typically denoted as C9 for a C major ninth chord, which theoretically includes the root, major third, perfect fifth, minor seventh, and major ninth (C–E–G–B♭–D). In practice, the perfect fifth is often omitted to facilitate smoother voicings on instruments like guitar or piano, resulting in a four-note structure emphasizing the ninth for added color without altering the chord's function. The notation "9" implies the presence of the seventh, distinguishing it from "add9" or "Cadd9," which adds the ninth to a triad without the seventh. Eleventh chords build further by incorporating the perfect eleventh (the fourth an octave higher) to the ninth chord structure, symbolized as C11 (C–E–G–B♭–D–F), though the major third is commonly omitted to avoid the dissonant minor ninth interval between the third and eleventh, creating a suspended or open sound often notated as C9sus4 in lead sheets. This omission of the third gives the chord a neutral, ambiguous quality suitable for tension resolution, while the fifth may also be excluded in dense jazz arrangements. Alterations like ♯11 (C7♯11) are frequent in modal interchange, but the base eleventh assumes natural extensions from the major scale unless specified. Thirteenth chords represent the fullest extension in this category, stacking up to the major thirteenth (the sixth an octave higher) as in C13 (C–E–G–B♭–D–F–A), yet practical voicings routinely omit the fifth, eleventh, and sometimes the third to prevent overcrowding and excessive dissonance on four-string instruments. A typical reduced voicing might prioritize the root, third, seventh, and thirteenth (C–E–B♭–A), allowing the eleventh's suspension to resolve naturally in progression. The "13" symbol implies all lower extensions including the dominant seventh base, with the thirteenth providing a rich, melodic capstone. In jazz notation conventions, these numerical extensions (9, 11, 13) indicate intervals added above the root, always presupposing a foundation unless explicitly stated otherwise, such as in "Cmaj9" for plus ninth. Alterations appear in parentheses for precision, like C9(♭5) or C13(♯11), guiding performers on tensions. These chords are staples in , serving as cues for where upper extensions suggest scale choices—like the for dominant 9/11/13—enhancing reharmonization and soloing over standards.

Modified and Alternative Chords

Added Tone and Suspended Chords

Added tone chords extend a basic triad—such as a major or minor triad—by incorporating an additional note that is not part of the standard tertian structure, without implying the presence of a seventh. The notation typically uses the "add" prefix followed by the interval number to specify the added tone, distinguishing it from extended chords that include a seventh. For instance, a C6 chord consists of the notes C, E, G, and A, forming a major triad with an added major sixth. Similarly, a Cadd9 chord includes C, E, G, and D, adding the major ninth (equivalent to the major second an octave higher) to the major triad, explicitly without a seventh to avoid confusion with a dominant ninth chord. These added tones often impart a sense of warmth and richness to the , enhancing the emotional depth of a progression beyond the starkness of a plain triad. The in a C6, for example, creates a mellow, extension suitable for ballads or contexts. Suspended chords, in contrast, modify a triad by replacing with another note, typically or fourth, resulting in a sound that lacks the major or minor quality of . The notation employs "sus" followed by the interval, such as sus4 or sus2; if unspecified, "sus" defaults to sus4. A Csus4 chord comprises the , perfect fourth, and perfect fifth—notes C, F, and G—effectively suspending (E) to introduce tension. Likewise, a Csus2 chord uses the , , and perfect fifth—notes C, D, and G—creating an open, unresolved texture. In genres like and folk, suspended chords generate ambiguity, evoking a neutral or floating quality that delays resolution and adds emotional nuance to progressions. This ambiguity allows sus chords to bridge tonalities seamlessly, as seen in tracks where a sus4 builds before resolving.

Power Chords and Slash Chords

Power chords, also known as fifth chords, are dyadic structures consisting solely of a note and its , omitting the third to avoid defining major or minor tonality. This simplification results in a neutral, ambiguous sound that emphasizes stability without tonal color. In notation, power chords are typically indicated by appending the numeral "5" to the root name, such as C5 for a C power chord encompassing C and G (often doubled at the for fuller voicing on guitar). They are prevalent in , where heavy distortion amplifies their overtones, creating a thick, aggressive texture that enhances the genre's rhythmic drive. Slash chords employ a where a standard chord symbol precedes a forward slash followed by a , specifying a particular voicing or inversion, as in to denote a triad (C-E-G) with G as the lowest note. This syntax, rooted in lead-sheet conventions, allows the bass note to be any pitch—whether a chord tone for inversions (e.g., first inversion in ) or an external note for pedal effects—providing flexibility beyond root-position triads. For instance, C/B♭ indicates a triad over B♭ in the bass, facilitating smooth progressions by outlining bass motion. In practice, power chords form the backbone of rock progressions, such as the I-IV-V sequence (e.g., G5-C5-D5), leveraging their compatibility with distorted guitar tones to produce a powerful, unison-like punch. Slash chords, meanwhile, are integral to arrangements, where they articulate walking bass lines or inversions to propel harmonic flow, as seen in descending patterns like C/G-Am/F-F/C that mimic independent bass movement without altering the upper chord structure.

Advanced Notations

Polychords and Cluster Chords

Polychords represent a sophisticated approach to chord notation, involving the simultaneous superposition of two or more independent chords to create layered harmonic textures. Typically, a polychord consists of two triads, two seventh chords, or a combination of a seventh chord and a triad sounded together. This structure allows composers and arrangers to evoke complex, polytonal effects without implying a single root or inversion. In notation, polychords are commonly indicated using a horizontal line, with the upper chord placed above the line and the lower chord below, such as C7 over triad, which denotes a C7 chord superimposed over an triad. This differs from simple slash chords by emphasizing the full voicing of multiple distinct harmonic units rather than a bass inversion. In lead sheets and arrangements, this format facilitates over dense progressions, as seen in modern compositions where polychords enhance tension and color. Cluster chords, also known as tone clusters, form another advanced notation category, comprising at least three adjacent pitches from a scale—often chromatic—struck simultaneously to produce dense, dissonant sonorities. A prototypical example is the chromatic cluster C-D-E, which spans third and emphasizes seconds rather than traditional third-based intervals. These structures prioritize timbral and textural effects over functional , creating a blurred, resonant of . Notation for cluster chords varies but often employs brackets to enclose the notes, such as [C-D-E], or a solid line connecting the highest and lowest pitches to indicate the full range to be played, as pioneered by in early 20th-century works. In impressionist music, clusters appear in evocative contexts, such as the alternating tone clusters and fourths in Claude Debussy's La cathédrale engloutie, which simulate the gentle splashing of waves through their dissonant layering. Contemporary applications extend to avant-garde compositions by figures like , who used graphical notations for expansive clusters in organ pieces like Volumina, and to film scores, where they underscore dissonance and atmospheric tension.

Alterations, Omissions, and Other Symbols

In chord notation, alterations modify specific tones within a chord, typically using sharp (♯) or flat (♭) symbols applied to extensions beyond the basic triad or seventh. For instance, in jazz harmony, a dominant seventh chord like C7 can be altered to C7♯9 by raising the ninth from D to D♯, creating tension often resolved to the tonic, or C7♭13 by lowering the thirteenth from A to A♭ for a bluesier sound. These alterations are common in dominant chords to enhance color and imply specific scales, such as the altered scale for ♯9 and ♭13 combinations. The shorthand "alt" denotes a fully altered dominant seventh, implying ♭9, ♯9, ♭5, and/or ♯5, as seen in lead sheets for improvisation. Omissions simplify chord voicings by excluding certain notes, denoted by "no," "omit," or "O" followed by the omitted degree. A common example is Cno3, which omits (E in C major), resulting in a shell voicing of root, fifth, and seventh (C-G-B♭ for C7), emphasizing the essential guide tones for comping in while avoiding clutter on instruments like or guitar. This approach is particularly useful in dense arrangements or when the omitted note is implied by the or bass line. Other symbols provide compact representations of chord qualities or optional elements. The slashed circle Ø indicates a half-diminished seventh chord, such as Cø7 (C-E♭-G♭-B♭), distinguishing it from fully diminished (°) chords. The triangle Δ signifies a major seventh chord, as in CΔ (C-E-G-B), a standard in for its bright, extended sound. Parentheses enclose optional or additional tones, like C7(♭9), where the ♭9 (D♭) may be included for color but is not essential to the core voicing. Genre-specific variations adapt notation to context. In and , letter-based symbols with alterations (e.g., C7♯9) prevail for flexibility in real-time performance, contrasting classical music's , which uses scale-degree numbers like V7/ii to denote functional harmony relative to the key, such as over . The , common in country and session work, employs for scale degrees with modifiers like "m7," where 1m7 represents the relative (e.g., Am7 in C major). In 21st-century digital audio workstations (DAWs), chord notation extends to implementations like chord triggers, where a single note activates a pre-programmed chord voicing, including alterations or omissions, as in 's Chord Trigger MIDI FX plugin, facilitating rapid prototyping in software such as or .

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