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Cape Oštro on the Prevlaka peninsula.

Key Information

Prevlaka (pronounced [prɛ̂ʋlaka]) is a small peninsula in southern Croatia, near the border with Montenegro, at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor on the eastern Adriatic coast.

Because of its strategic location in the southern Adriatic, in the aftermath of the SFR Yugoslav breakup, the peninsula became subject to a territorial dispute between Croatia and FR Yugoslavia, a federal state that included Montenegro. The territory was functional under UN until 2002. The UN mission ended in December 2002 and the territory that had previously been part of SR Croatia was returned to the Republic of Croatia. An agreement was signed by both sides five days before the departure of the UNMOP that demilitarized Prevlaka, though implementation still has a temporary character.[1]

Geography

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Vicinity of Prevlaka peninsula

The narrow, uninhabited peninsula is 2.6 kilometres (1.6 mi) long and only 150–500 metres (500–1,600 ft) wide, covering an area of 93.33 hectares (230.6 acres) (just under 1 square kilometre or 0.4 square miles).

The word prevlaka means 'portage'. Cape Oštro (Punta Oštro/Punta d'Ostro), located at the very tip of the peninsula, is the southernmost point of mainland in Croatia. Along with the small Montenegrin island of Mamula, which sits some 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) east of Cape Oštro, in addition to being two sides of an international maritime border, the two spots present observation entry points into the Bay of Kotor.

North of the Prevlaka isthmus, just within the Bay of Kotor, lie the two less prominent capes Konfin and Kobila,[2] to the northwest of which is a road border crossing between Croatia and Montenegro. The D516 highway connects it to Konavle and the D8; northwards the road connects to Njivice, Sutorina, and Igalo.

History

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Prevlaka Fortress at the Bay of Kotor entrance

Konavle and the Prevlaka peninsula was bought by the Republic of Ragusa from the Bosnian Kingdom in the early 15th century to protect its eastern flank.[3] Ragusans fortified Cape Oštro in 1441.[4] Cape Kobila was the boundary with Sutorina under the Ottoman Empire's control since 1699.[2]

In 1806, during Napoleon's conquest of Europe, King Alexander I of Russia was intent on stopping French advances in the Adriatic and to that end deployed a Mediterranean expedition led by vice-admiral Dmitry Senyavin, that by September 1806 made considerable territorial gains in the area, including Prevlaka and the entire Bay of Kotor. In July 1807, the Russians and the French struck a deal in the first Treaty of Tilsit for the area to be handed over to the First French Empire. In 1808, the French assigned the newly acquired territory over to their client state called the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy before in 1810 reassigning it back into the First French Empire proper as part of the Illyrian Provinces, their recently created autonomous subdivision.

Following Napoleon's defeat, former Ragusan territory including Prevlaka came under the rule of the Austrian Empire in 1813.[4] Austrian rule was ratified by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and the territory became part of its newly created internal administrative subdivision, the Kingdom of Dalmatia. It remained as such after the transformation of Austrian Empire into the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary following the Congress of Berlin in 1867. Towards the end of the 19th century, on the suggestion of General Lazar Mamula, the Austro-Hungarian authorities decided to build a fort on Punta d'Ostro, along with another in the island of Mamula in order to ensure military control over the entrance into the Bay of Kotor. The Austrian authorities successfully fortified cape Mirište and the islet of Mamula.[2] The authorities reportedly also decided to compensate local farmers for the expropriated land, but no money was paid until the collapse of the dual monarchy.

In 1918, after the end of World War I and collapse of Austria-Hungary, Prevlaka became part of the newly created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. By 1922, once the new state determined its internal administrative subdivisions, dividing its territory into 33 oblasts, the peninsula got included in kingdom's Dubrovnik Oblast. In 1929, as Kingdom of SCS transformed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia along with its internal administrative subdivisions being reconfigured into 9 banovinas, Prevlaka was included into Zeta Banovina together with Dubrovnik. During the 1930s, Royal Yugoslav Army further fortified Prevlaka.[2] In 1939, the area was assigned to the newly created Banovina of Croatia subdivision of the Yugoslav kingdom.[4]

World War II was the only period since the 15th century when the boundaries of Konavle were modified.[4] In April 1941 Nazi Germany invaded Yugoslavia, conquering it in less than three weeks before proceeding to dismember its territory by creating a handful of locally-administered fascist puppet states. Due to its strategic importance, the Axis-aligned Kingdom of Italy under prime minister Benito Mussolini would not let either of the two newly propped up local fascist puppet regimes, the Independent State of Croatia or the Italian governorate of Montenegro, control the Bay of Kotor region. The Bay of Kotor along with its surrounding areas including eastern Konavle and Prevlaka was controlled directly by Italy based on the May 1941 Treaties of Rome.[4]

As World War II dragged on, in summer 1943, in response to the Allied advances in their Italian campaign, Nazi Germany took over the administration of the Bay of Kotor including Prevlaka.[4] On 22 December 1944, the Yugoslav Partisans took control of the region, and after the war Prevlaka became part of the newly proclaimed FPR Yugoslavia, specifically its constituent unit the People's Republic of Croatia.[4]

In 1955, the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) closed down access to Prevlaka because of its coastal artillery installations.[2]

During the Yugoslav Wars that followed the breakup of Yugoslavia, the territory was occupied by Yugoslav forces like most of the Dubrovnik region during the siege of Dubrovnik. At one point, the Croatian military gained temporary control over Prevlaka, before it was retaken. The two sides agreed on the demilitarization of the peninsula and the United Nations Security Council Resolution 779 of October 6, 1992 extended the mandate of UNPROFOR to the implementation of this agreement, together with the European Community Monitoring Mission.[5] A resolution to the conflict took shape in 1996 when the United Nations mediated the conflict and established an observer mission (UNMOP) which oversaw the demilitarization and acted as a buffer.[5]

The Konfin/Kobila border crossing has operated since 1999.[6]

The UN mission ended in December 2002 and the territory that had previously been part of SR Croatia was returned to the Republic of Croatia. An agreement was signed by both sides five days before the departure of the UNMOP that demilitarized Prevlaka, though implementation still has a temporary character.[7]

In 2002, the two states agreed on a temporary solution stipulating that Croatia would receive the entire land mass of the Prevlaka peninsula including some 500 metres (1,600 ft) of the sea belt entrance into Boka Kotorska while the sea bay on the side of Prevlaka facing Herceg Novi was declared no man's waters.[8]

Montenegro became independent in 2006 and the temporary agreement remained in effect. In 2008, a mixed commission was created, tasked with preparing the legal case for the border settlement in front of the International Court of Justice at The Hague.[9] In search of the permanent border settlement, the two states have the option of settling the issue between themselves bilaterally or opting for the international arbitration.[10]

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References

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Sources

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Prevlaka

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Prevlaka is a small, narrow, uninhabited in southern , measuring approximately 2.6 kilometers in length and 150 to 500 meters in width, situated at the southernmost tip of the Croatian mainland near the border with and commanding the entrance to the . Its strategic location has historically rendered it a focal point for military fortifications, including Austro-Hungarian-era structures on Cape Oštro, due to oversight of the deep-water bay used for naval purposes. The peninsula became a disputed territory during the dissolution of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, when fighting erupted between Croatian forces and the , leading to intervention to enforce demilitarization under Security Council Resolution 779 (1992). The Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP), established in 1996, monitored compliance until its withdrawal in 2002 following a bilateral protocol that instituted an interim cross-border regime favoring Croatian administration while maintaining demilitarization. Despite this arrangement, sovereignty over Prevlaka and adjacent maritime boundaries remain unresolved, with advocating for and insisting on bilateral talks, as evidenced by stalled negotiations as recently as January 2025. The ongoing contention has implications for regional stability and 's accession process, underscoring persistent border frictions in the post-Yugoslav .

Geography and Environment

Physical Features and Location

Prevlaka is a narrow peninsula situated in southern Croatia's Dubrovnik-Neretva County, immediately adjacent to the border with Montenegro and commanding the southern entrance to the Bay of Kotor (Boka Kotorska) on the Adriatic Sea. It marks the southernmost extent of Croatian territory on the mainland, with Cape Oštra at its southeastern tip serving as the country's southernmost point. The peninsula's strategic position overlooks the narrow channel connecting the bay to the open sea, historically enhancing its military significance. Physically, Prevlaka extends approximately 2.6 kilometers in length and varies in width from 150 to 500 meters, encompassing an area of about 93 hectares. The terrain consists of rocky outcrops covered in maquis shrubland and typical Mediterranean vegetation, rendering it largely uninhabited and preserved as a protected natural area. This slender landform, part of the broader Konavle region, features low hills and historical fortifications, contributing to its rugged, defensible character.

Strategic and Environmental Significance

The Prevlaka peninsula's primary strategic significance derives from its commanding position at the entrance to the , a deep providing sheltered access for naval vessels and historically serving as Yugoslavia's main fleet base during the and Balkan conflicts. This location enabled control over maritime routes into the bay, prompting extensive fortifications such as Fort Oštro (Punta d'Ostro), constructed between 1856 and 1862 by the as part of a broader defensive system for the bay. These defenses repelled attacks, including a French fleet in 1914, and remained relevant through and the Yugoslav era, with the area demilitarized only after the 1990s conflicts under UN oversight. Environmentally, Prevlaka contributes to the Adriatic's coastal ecosystem through its uninhabited terrain of cliffs, , and proximity to the Bay of Kotor's hotspots, supporting marine habitats influenced by regional wind patterns like bora and jugo. The peninsula's location at the bay's mouth aids in preserving the area's natural serenity and ecological connectivity, though its has limited development and human impact. As part of the broader Boka Kotorska region, it faces potential climate risks such as storms and sea-level rise, underscoring the need for conservation amid pressures.

Demographics

The Prevlaka , due to its strategic location and long of , has maintained negligible throughout . Venetian and later Austro-Hungarian administrations prioritized defensive structures over settlement, with any temporary inhabitants limited to garrisons; no significant communities are documented in archival records from these periods. During the Kingdom of and subsequent Socialist Federal Republic (1918–1991), the area hosted installations, further restricting access and residency. The (1991–1995) involved active combat on the peninsula, leading to complete depopulation as part of broader evacuations in the region. Post-war, under the Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP, 1992–2002), the saw no resettlement, with observers noting the absence of permanent inhabitants. Croatian census data from the Croatian Bureau of Statistics, which enumerates settlements in the surrounding municipality, does not record Prevlaka as a populated entity in 2001, 2011, or 2021, confirming its status as uninhabited. Contemporary assessments describe Prevlaka as lacking permanent residents, with occasional seasonal visitors but no demographic trends indicative of growth or settlement. This pattern aligns with its ongoing role in the Croatia-Montenegro border dispute, where military and diplomatic considerations supersede residential development.

Current Demographic Status

As of the 2021 Croatian , the hamlet of Prevlaka in the Municipality of recorded a of 82 residents, reflecting its status as a sparsely populated near the border. This low figure aligns with the broader depopulation trends in southern Croatian coastal regions, where limited economic opportunities and historical conflict impacts have contributed to stagnant or declining numbers. The residents, Croatian citizens under national administration, primarily inhabit the peninsula's northern edges, with the southern tip remaining largely uninhabited due to its rocky terrain and past military use. Demographic data specific to Prevlaka does not include detailed breakdowns by age, sex, or in public summaries, given its small size; however, the area's integration into municipality—where Croats historically and currently dominate—indicates a homogeneous ethnic Croatian composition with negligible minorities. No significant Montenegrin or other non-Croatian populations are reported, consistent with Croatia's effective control since the 1996 agreements and the absence of dual residency claims in the . Population density remains minimal at under 20 inhabitants per square kilometer, supporting limited local and rather than dense settlement.

Historical Background

Pre-Yugoslav and Early 20th Century History

The Prevlaka peninsula, forming the southern extension of the region, came under the control of the in the early 15th century. The republic purchased , including Prevlaka, from Bosnian Kingdom dignitaries in transactions dated 1419 and 1426 to fortify its eastern frontier against potential incursions. Ragusa maintained sovereignty over the area until its abolition by French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte in 1808, during the . The territory, encompassing the mainland coast from Neum to Prevlaka, was briefly incorporated into the French Illyrian Provinces. Following Napoleon's defeat, Prevlaka passed to the in 1814 via the , becoming part of the Kingdom of . Under Austrian Habsburg rule in the , the Prevlaka Fortress was constructed around 1850 to regulate and secure maritime access to the adjacent . This fortification underscored the peninsula's strategic value in controlling naval traffic at the bay's entrance. The region remained administratively integrated into throughout the Habsburg era, with no major territorial shifts until the empire's dissolution. In the early , prior to the formation of , Prevlaka continued under Austrian control amid rising South Slav nationalist movements. The 1918 collapse of led to its incorporation into the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and , where it was delineated as part of the Croatian littoral within the broader Dalmatian framework, reflecting pre-war administrative boundaries.

Yugoslav Era (1945-1991)

Following the end of and the establishment of the in 1945, the Prevlaka peninsula was administratively assigned to the , forming part of the municipality. This delineation followed the internal republican borders inherited from the pre-war , adjusted minimally post-liberation by Partisan forces. Throughout the Yugoslav era, Prevlaka remained under Croatian republican civil administration, with no recorded internal territorial disputes between republics over the peninsula. Its strategic position, commanding the narrow entrance to the —site of the Yugoslav Navy's primary base at —necessitated federal military oversight, including the presence of (JNA) units and maintenance of pre-existing Austro-Hungarian fortifications for coastal defense. The land border with the adhered to these administrative lines, though maritime boundaries were undefined internally within the federation. The sparsely populated area, primarily consisting of military installations, a , and limited civilian access due to its restricted status, experienced no significant demographic or economic shifts attributable to federal policies during this period. Stability prevailed until the federation's dissolution in 1991, when rising inter-republican tensions began to politicize the previously uncontroversial border configuration.

Breakup of Yugoslavia and Armed Conflict (1991-1995)

The dissolution of the gained momentum in 1991, as multi-party elections in 1990 exposed deep ethnic and political divisions, culminating in and Croatia's declarations of on June 25, 1991. The (JNA), loyal to the federal government in , responded with military interventions to retain control over key territories, including strategic coastal areas in Croatia's region. In southern , JNA forces—comprising regular troops, Montenegrin reservists, and local militias—initiated an offensive on October 1, 1991, targeting the hinterland of to isolate the city and secure maritime access to the , a vital for the . By late October 1991, JNA units had advanced southward, occupying the Prevlaka peninsula, a 2.6 km-long strip controlling the northern entrance to the and separating it from the open Adriatic. This seizure, executed primarily by the JNA's 9th Corps with Montenegrin support, positioned artillery and observation posts on Prevlaka's fortifications, enabling oversight of Croatian naval movements and threats to Montenegrin shores. Croatian defenders, outnumbered and logistically strained, offered resistance through small-unit actions but withdrew under pressure, viewing the occupation as an extension of broader Serb-Montenegrin territorial ambitions amid the siege of , which involved heavy shelling and tactics until May 1992. The strategic value of Prevlaka lay in its denial of Croatian dominance over the bay's approaches, potentially allowing Yugoslav forces to interdict shipping and reinforce positions. Throughout –1995, Prevlaka remained under de facto (later Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, or FRY) control, serving as a forward military position despite international cease-fires. (UNPROFOR) military observers arrived in February to monitor a partial JNA withdrawal from Croatian territory under the Agreement, establishing a around Prevlaka, but FRY forces retained presence with heavy weaponry until phased reductions. Armed incidents were limited compared to inland fighting, consisting of sporadic exchanges, fire across the , and naval patrols that heightened tensions, such as FRY vessel movements challenging Croatian claims. Croatian attempts to reclaim the area, including raids, failed due to FRY entrenchments and UN-mediated restraints. By 1995, amid Croatia's recapturing other territories and the Dayton Accords ending major hostilities in Bosnia, Prevlaka's status persisted as a frozen dispute, with FRY garrisons of approximately 200–300 troops enforcing control amid ongoing UN oversight.

Post-Conflict Administration and Agreements

United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP, 1992-2002)

Military observers were first assigned to the on 20 1992 under the (), authorized by Security Council resolution 779 (1992) to monitor the demilitarization of the area as agreed between and forces following the initial phases of the . This small group of 14 observers focused on verifying compliance with the and withdrawal of heavy weapons from the and adjacent territories in and the Federal Republic of (). The Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP) was formally established on 15 January 1996 through Security Council resolution 1038, assuming responsibilities from UNPROFOR effective 1 February 1996, amid the implementation of the which addressed broader Balkan conflicts but left the Prevlaka dispute unresolved. UNMOP's mandate entailed deploying approximately 28 unarmed military observers to monitor demilitarization in the Prevlaka peninsula and neighboring regions, investigating reported violations, and facilitating liaison between Croatian and FRY military authorities. The mission operated from bases in , Croatia, and , FRY, conducting daily patrols and ground-air operations to ensure no heavy armaments or troop concentrations exceeded agreed limits. Throughout its tenure, UNMOP documented periodic incidents of non-compliance, including unauthorized military maneuvers and overflights, particularly during heightened tensions in the late , though overall stability improved following FRY's withdrawal from other contested areas. In October 1999, the Security Council endorsed proposed by the Secretary-General, such as joint commissions and restricted zones, to reduce risks of inadvertent clashes. Mandate renewals occurred semiannually, with the Council commending UNMOP's role in maintaining calm despite ongoing sovereignty claims. By 2002, sustained cooperation between and the FRY (then transitioning to ) led to the mission's termination; resolution 1437 (24 October 2002) authorized a final two-month extension until 15 December, after which observers withdrew completely by year's end, transferring monitoring responsibilities to bilateral mechanisms. UNMOP's closure reflected the demilitarized and diminished immediate threats, though it did not resolve underlying territorial disputes.

Bilateral and International Accords (1996-2006)

In August 1996, the and the signed the Agreement on Normalization of Relations, committing both parties to resolve the Prevlaka dispute through bilateral negotiations while reaffirming prior demilitarization commitments monitored by observers. The accord, dated 23 August 1996, established foundational principles of sovereignty, mutual recognition, and non-interference, facilitating improved diplomatic ties and regional stability around the Prevlaka peninsula without altering its administration or the demilitarized status quo. Subsequent resolutions from 1996 to 2002 periodically extended the mandate of the United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP), endorsing the ongoing implementation of the 1996 normalization framework and earlier demilitarization protocols to prevent militarization and ensure compliance in the disputed area. These extensions, such as Resolution 1066 in 1996 and Resolution 1387 in 2002, highlighted the accords' role in maintaining peace but noted persistent challenges, including occasional violations of the by both sides. On 4 December 2002, and the State Union of concluded a Temporary Protocol for the Prevlaka Peninsula, establishing an interim regime that terminated UNMOP's role while preserving demilitarization, Croatian territorial control over the peninsula, and in adjacent waters pending a final agreement. The protocol, welcomed by the Security Council on 12 December 2002, shifted monitoring to bilateral mechanisms and , reflecting matured relations post-normalization but deferring comprehensive resolution of territorial and maritime claims. The 2002 interim arrangement remained operative through 2006, including following Montenegro's on 3 June 2006, which inherited FRY/SCG obligations under the accords without immediate renegotiation of Prevlaka provisions, thereby sustaining the demilitarized status and Croatian administration amid ongoing diplomatic consultations. No further bilateral accords specifically addressing Prevlaka were enacted in this period, though the framework supported broader Croatia-Montenegro dialogue on border stabilization.

Territorial and Maritime Dispute

Croatian Claims and Control

Croatia asserts sovereignty over the Prevlaka peninsula on the basis of its inclusion within the Socialist Republic of Croatia during the Yugoslav federation and earlier historical affiliations with the Dubrovnik Republic, which acquired the area in the 15th century through purchase from the Bosnian Kingdom. Following Croatia's declaration of independence in 1991, Yugoslav People's Army forces occupied Prevlaka, viewing it as strategically vital for access to the Bay of Kotor. As part of the 1995 and subsequent agreements in 1996, the peninsula was demilitarized and placed under monitoring via the United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP), with Croatian forces withdrawing but retaining administrative presence in adjacent areas. Effective Croatian control was solidified in the 2002 Protocol on the Interim Regime for Prevlaka, signed on December 10 between and the of Yugoslavia, which confirmed the peninsula's administration under Croatian authorities while maintaining demilitarization and prohibiting Yugoslav (later Montenegrin) military presence or fortifications. Under this interim arrangement, which superseded UNMOP's termination in December 2002, exercises full civilian and police authority over Prevlaka, including management and , without prejudice to final determinations. interprets the protocol as limited to provisional measures and regime implementation, rejecting any implication of territorial concessions and upholding Prevlaka's status as undisputed Croatian territory under principles like . This position aligns with 's regaining of complete post-2002, enabling normalized bilateral relations while disputes persist over broader maritime delimitations.

Montenegrin Positions and Assertions

Montenegro maintains that the Prevlaka peninsula constitutes an integral part of its territory, primarily on geographical grounds, as its location directly guards the entrance to the , ensuring vital maritime access for Montenegrin ports and naval facilities. Montenegrin officials, including senior representatives from the ruling parties, have asserted that Prevlaka's strategic positioning "belongs to " by natural extension, arguing this provides a strong case for success in potential proceedings. This claim emphasizes the peninsula's role in safeguarding 's outlet to the , without which national sovereignty over the could be compromised by Croatian control. Historically, Montenegro invokes pre-Yugoslav administrative precedents, contending that elements of Prevlaka, such as Cape Oštro, fell under the jurisdiction of the Boka Kotorska region—aligned with Montenegrin territories—prior to modern border delineations influenced by 20th-century constructions and Yugoslav internal republic lines. Proponents describe these as "natural" or "historical" borders that align Prevlaka with Montenegro rather than Croatia's Dubrovnik hinterland, dismissing Croatian retention as motivated more by regional rivalry than territorial logic. Such assertions frame the 1945 Yugoslav federal boundaries, which placed Prevlaka in Socialist Republic of Croatia, as artificial impositions not reflective of underlying geographic or ethno-historical realities. In the context of post-conflict accords, views the 2002 Protocol on the Interim Regime for Prevlaka—signed with then-Federal Republic of —as a temporary demilitarization measure that does not concede , inheriting and perpetuating the unresolved claim upon in 2006. Montenegrin governments have repeatedly called for bilateral joint commissions to negotiate delimitation, insisting the dispute encompasses both terrestrial boundaries and adjacent maritime zones, where equitable division under would favor Montenegro's interests. Officials have linked resolution to broader diplomatic goals, such as integration, while rejecting unilateral Croatian administration as incompatible with Montenegro's sovereign rights. Despite these positions, Montenegrin assertions have faced domestic criticism for inconsistency, with some governments downplaying Prevlaka as a non-obstacle to progress while others rally opposition against perceived concessions. continues to advocate under frameworks like the for maritime aspects, prioritizing evidence-based boundary drawing over status quo acceptance. The established a framework for the Prevlaka peninsula through Resolution 779 (1992), which authorized monitoring of its demilitarization by United Nations military observers as part of the broader efforts in the former , without altering underlying claims.) This mandate was extended repeatedly, including via Resolutions 1038 (1996), 1147 (1998), and 1424 (2002), which consistently reaffirmed "the independence, and of the Republic of Croatia" in the context of the Prevlaka isthmus and adjacent areas.))) The Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP), operational from 1996 to 2002, verified compliance with demilitarization but did not adjudicate territorial ownership, leaving resolution to bilateral negotiations. The 1996 Agreement on Normalization of Relations between and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), signed in , introduced a provisional for Prevlaka, including demilitarization and , but explicitly preserved Croatia's sovereignty over the peninsula while granting FRY (later ) certain transit rights through the area. This accord, endorsed by UNSC Resolution 1073 (1996), regulated the legal status of disputed segments like Cape Oštri and the Prevlaka hinterland without conceding territorial control to FRY, reflecting international emphasis on Croatia's recognized borders from the Yugoslav dissolution under the Badinter Commission's principles of .) Post-UNMOP, and maintained the demilitarized status quo bilaterally, though has invoked the unratified 2002 Draft Protocol on Maritime Delimitation—negotiated between and FRY—to argue for encompassing both land and sea boundaries, a position rejects as limited to maritime zones. Maritime dimensions involve application of the Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), with contention over territorial sea delimitation at the Bay of Kotor's entrance, where Prevlaka's position affects claims to historic waters versus open sea access. Croatia asserts exclusive control over Prevlaka's waters under its , applying equidistance principles for boundaries, while contends for a line extending FRY-era administrative delimitations, potentially enclosing the bay's mouth. No has ruled on the matter; proposed in 2020 under the 2002 protocol, but talks stalled, with the facilitating dialogue tied to accession processes without endorsing either claim. The dispute underscores tensions between inherited administrative lines and equitable maritime delimitation under , absent a binding .

Recent Developments and Implications

Diplomatic Negotiations Post-2006

Following Montenegro's declaration of independence on June 3, 2006, bilateral negotiations on the Prevlaka dispute shifted from the prior framework involving Serbia and Montenegro to direct talks between Zagreb and Podgorica, with the 2002 interim agreement on the peninsula's status remaining temporarily in effect. Initial efforts focused on reactivating joint commissions established under earlier accords, but progress stalled due to differing interpretations: Croatia emphasized resolving the land border at Prevlaka, while Montenegro prioritized maritime delimitation in adjacent waters, including access to the Bay of Kotor. By 2008, Montenegro proposed submitting the broader maritime boundary issue, encompassing Prevlaka's vicinity, to international arbitration, though no formal proceedings ensued at that stage. Negotiations remained dormant through the 2010s, with intermittent high-level meetings yielding no breakthroughs; for instance, intergovernmental commissions convened sporadically but failed to delimit boundaries, as sought third-party involvement while insisted on bilateral resolution to avoid ceding control over the strategically positioned . Tensions escalated in October 2020 when Montenegrin officials publicly advocated for specifically over Prevlaka, citing 's military presence and refusal to demilitarize as per the 1996 Agreement. In 2021, 's government announced plans to form a new bilateral commission to address the maritime dispute, including Prevlaka's waters, though subsequent sessions produced limited tangible outcomes. The integration process introduced indirect mediation pressures, as , an EU member since July 2013, leveraged its position to condition Montenegro's accession progress on dispute resolution; notably, blocked opening Chapter 31 (External Relations) in Montenegro's talks in , linking it to unresolved issues like Prevlaka, post-Yugoslav division, and . This dynamic intensified in late , when Croatian diplomatic leverage reportedly prompted concessions, amid Podgorica's push to accelerate EU negotiations. By mid-2025, signs of emerged, with reports in September indicating the two countries were nearing a comprehensive agreement on bilateral disputes, including Prevlaka's status, potentially unblocking Montenegro's path; high-level meetings reaffirmed commitments to strong ties and , though core divergences on versus persisted. As of late 2025, no final delimitation had been ratified, leaving Prevlaka's long-term resolution contingent on sustained diplomatic engagement amid regional stability concerns.

Impact on EU Accession and Regional Stability

The unresolved Prevlaka dispute has primarily impeded accession process, as , an EU member since 2013, has conditioned its support on maritime border delimitation in the area. In December 2024, blocked the opening of Chapter 31 (foreign, security, and defense policy) in Montenegro's negotiations, citing the lack of a permanent agreement on the Prevlaka peninsula's maritime boundaries, which remain governed by a temporary 2002 accord. This stance aligns with the EU's broader requirement that candidate states resolve bilateral disputes to prevent inherited conflicts upon membership, a principle reinforced in enlargement reports emphasizing good neighborly relations. Prospects for resolution emerged in September 2025, when reports indicated and were nearing a bilateral agreement that could unblock stalled chapters and advance Podgorica's timeline toward entry, potentially by addressing technical border definitions without altering land demarcations. 's government has repeatedly argued that the Prevlaka issue, demilitarized since 1996 under UN oversight until 2002, should not derail its integration, proposing or joint commissions to expedite talks. Failure to resolve it risks amplifying Euroskepticism in and eroding credibility in the Western , where similar disputes—such as those involving Bosnia or —have delayed regional convergence. On regional stability, the Prevlaka standoff contributes to low-level tensions between allies and , perpetuating a pattern of unresolved borders that undermine trust and cooperation in the Adriatic-Balkan theater. Although no armed incidents have occurred since the 1991-1995 , the dispute symbolizes lingering post-conflict frictions, with asserting rights to the Bay of Kotor's entrance and maintaining control under the 1996 Dayton-derived agreements. This dynamic exacerbates vulnerabilities in an area prone to hybrid threats, including Russian influence via pro-Serb elements, but international mechanisms like the UN's temporary administration until 2002 have contained escalation, fostering a fragile reliant on diplomatic inertia rather than finality. Overall, while not sparking active conflict, Prevlaka hinders deeper Balkan integration, as bilateral disputes collectively erode incentives for economic and security alignment.

References

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  19. https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unprof_b.htm
  20. https://web.dzs.hr/eng/censuses/census2011/results/htm/e01_01_01/e01_01_01_zup01_3760.html
  21. https://podaci.dzs.hr/media/ixpn5qzo/si-1711-popis-stanovnistva-kucanstava-i-stanova-2021-prvi-rezultati-po-naseljima.pdf
  22. https://podaci.dzs.hr/2022/en/29031
  23. https://www.citypopulation.de/en/croatia/dubrovnikneretva/1988__konavle/
  24. https://mapcarta.com/18786090
  25. http://www.croatianhistory.net/mat/et111.htm
  26. https://www.balkanhistory.org/siege-of-ragusa-1814.html
  27. https://www.balkanhistory.org/austrian-forts-19thc.html
  28. https://en.vijesti.me/column/739102/isthmus-between-Bura-and-Bonaca
  29. https://1997-2001.state.gov/issues/fs-peacekp_croatia_000823.html
  30. https://www.yorku.ca/soi/_Vol_5_1/_PDF/Pavlovic.pdf
  31. https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/military-history/history-heritage/past-operations/europe/chaperon.html
  32. https://www.aktuelno.me/clanak/operation-dubrovnik-death-of-the-myth-of-heroic-montenegro
  33. https://iwpr.net/global-voices/troops-come-prevlaka
  34. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2002/16015.htm
  35. https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/past/unmop/mandate.html
  36. https://www.refworld.org/reference/countryrep/unsc/2002/en/31285
  37. https://unis.unvienna.org/unis/en/pressrels/2002/sc7452.html
  38. https://unis.unvienna.org/unis/en/pressrels/2002/sc7527.html
  39. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/221521/files/A_51_351--S_1996_744-EN.pdf
  40. https://www.peaceagreements.org/agreements/287/
  41. https://peacemaker.un.org/en/node/9386
  42. https://docs.un.org/en/S/RES/1038%281996%29
  43. https://hrlibrary.umn.edu/resolutions/Sc98/1147SC98.html
  44. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1387
  45. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2002/15827.htm
  46. https://press.un.org/en/2002/sc7596.doc.htm
  47. https://www.rferl.org/a/1101592.html
  48. https://iwpr.net/global-voices/montenegro-and-croatia-move-closer
  49. http://www.croatia.org/crown/articles/7391/1/E-PREVLAKA-Croatia---Croatia-regained-control-of-all-of-its-borders.html
  50. https://aimpress.forumcivique.org/article/41010-006-trae-pod/
  51. https://balkaninsight.com/2013/03/21/montenegro-to-form-commission-for-solving-prevlaka-dispute/
  52. https://balkaninsight.com/2021/04/28/montenegro-plans-new-commission-to-solve-croatia-border-dispute/
  53. https://www.gov.me/en/article/pmqs-pm-krivokapic-open-issue-of-prevlaka-cannot-be-an-obstacle-for-montenegros-further-progress-towards-eu-membership
  54. https://balkaninsight.com/2014/11/07/montenegrin-opposition-to-rally-over-govt-s-betrayal/
  55. https://press.un.org/en/1996/19960115.sc6160.html
  56. https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/handle/2077/67529/gupea_2077_67529_1.pdf?sequence=1
  57. https://digitalcommons.mainelaw.maine.edu/context/oclj/article/1184/viewcontent/vol8_oclj_21.pdf
  58. https://irmo.hr/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Crossing-over_WEB.pdf
  59. https://cfwbs.org/relations-between-montenegro-and-croatia-and-the-destructive-influence-of-pro-serb-politicians/
  60. https://eualive.net/montenegro-and-croatia-near-agreement-clearing-path-for-podgoricas-eu-membership/
  61. https://cdn.ceps.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/EU-enlargement-and-the-resolution-of-bilateral-disputes-in-the-Western-Balkans.pdf
  62. https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/balkans-borders/
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