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Well pole in central Anatolia, Turkey

A shadoof or shaduf,[1] well pole, well sweep, sweep,[2] swape,[3] or simply a lift[4] is a tool that is used to lift water from a well or another water source onto land or into another waterway or basin. It is highly efficient, and has been known since 3000 BCE.[citation needed]

The mechanism of a shadoof comprises a long counterbalanced pole on a pivot, with a bucket attached to the end of it. It is generally used in a crop irrigation system using basins, dikes, ditches, walls, canals, and similar waterways.[5]

History

[edit]
Multi-level shadoofs
Multi-level shadoof system in Egypt

One theory states that the shadoof was invented in prehistoric times in Mesopotamia as early as the time of Sargon of Akkad (around 24th and 23rd centuries BCE). The earliest evidence of this technology is a cylindrical seal with a depiction of a shadoof dating back to about 2200 BCE. Then, it is believed that the Minoans adopted this technology; evidence suggests the use of shadoofs as early as around 2100–1600 BCE. The shadoof appeared in Upper Egypt sometime after 2000 BC, most likely during the 18th Dynasty.[6] Around the same time, the shadoof reached China.

Some historians believe the Egyptians were the original inventors of the shadoof. The theory states that the shadoof originated along the Nile, using tomb drawings illustrating shadoofs at Thebes dating from 1250 BCE as evidence.[7]

An alternative origin theory states that shadoof originated from India around the same time as in Mesopotamia. This theory owes to the fact that the shadoof was well spread in India; however, there is little to no other evidence that makes this theory any stronger.[6]

It is still used in many areas of Africa and Asia and is very common in rural areas of India and Pakistan, such as the Bhojpuri belt of the Ganges plain. In Europe, they remain common in countries like Ukraine, Belarus, Poland and Germany. In the Great Hungarian Plain they are considered a symbol of the region.[citation needed]

Design, construction, and efficiency

[edit]

The shadoof is easy to construct and is highly efficient in use.[4] It consists of an upright frame on which is suspended a long pole or branch, at a distance of about one-fifth of its length from one end.[4] At the long end of this pole hangs a bucket, skin bag, or bitumen-coated reed basket. The bucket can be made in many different styles, sometimes having an uneven base or a part at the top of the skin that can be untied. This allows the water to be immediately distributed rather than manually emptied. The short end carries a weight made of clay, stone, or a similar material, which serves as the counterpoise of a lever. The bucket can be lowered by the operator using their own weight to push it down; the counterweight then raises the full bucket without effort.[4][8]

The implementations vary from region to region. The frame can consist of a single pole or a pair, and the buckets can be attached in multiple different ways, from being tied to a rope to being attached to a thinner stick.[6]

With an almost effortless swinging and lifting motion, the waterproof vessel can be used to scoop up and carry water from a body of water (typically, a river or pond) onto land or to another body of water. At the end of each movement, the water is emptied out into runnels that convey the water along irrigation ditches in the required direction.[8] The device is capable of lowering the force levels required of operators to the extent that the performance tends to be limited by the energy processing capacity of the operator and not necessarily muscle fatigue.

The shadoof has a lifting range of 1 to 6 meters. A study of efficiency in various sites in Chad has shown that one man can lift 39 to 130 liters per minute over heights of 1.8 to 6.2 m, resulting in water-lifting power levels of 26.7 to 60.1 W. Its efficiency has been calculated at 60%.[7][9]

A study done in Nigeria also indirectly assessed energy usage through heart rate, serving as the physiological metric. Through this approach, it was discovered that making suitable adjustments to the shadoof decreased energy consumption from approximately 109 to 71 watts (equivalent to 6.56 to 4.27 kilojoules per minute). This reduction enables a farmer to engage in prolonged work without necessitating frequent rest breaks.[9]

Social effects

[edit]

Across numerous cultures, shadoofs have symbolized collective effort.[9] In ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, for instance, the multi-tiered shadoof systems allowed the movement of water to higher levels through teamwork.[10] Together with other irrigation technologies, shadoofs not only helped establish reliable methods of agriculture for growing civilizations but also influenced cultural elements.[11]

Well pole in Baidivka, Ukraine (1950)

The accessibility and utilization of shadoofs have been linked to class. During the Egyptian Middle Empire and the New Kingdom, pleasure gardens featuring shadoof irrigation became a hallmark of luxury residences and consequently a status symbol.[12] Although not directly, shadoofs contributed to creating a class system, a barrier for some. At the same time, shadoofs have remained essential for those with limited resources to support their livelihoods on large-scale farms around the Nile. Even in the present day, many communities worldwide lack access to more sophisticated water technologies, making shadoofs an indicator of socio-economic standing and a certain measure of societal development. The technology's reliability, despite its antiquity, often gets overlooked.[9]

The geographic spread of shadoofs is impressive. In regions where irrigation is imperative, such as Egypt, India, and parts of sub-Saharan Africa, shadoofs have played a crucial role in enabling agriculture to thrive in water-scarce areas. Shadoofs have empowered marginalized communities by providing them with the means to secure their sustenance, breaking the barrier of food insecurity even in the modern age.[7][9]

Gender roles have also undergone a transformation, with women frequently assuming shadoof operation.[13] The ease of use of the shadoof empowered women to play a more active role in farming. It is fair to acknowledge that shadoofs contributed to normalizing women's increased independence and participation in less physically demanding, and therefore more “socially acceptable”, aspects of food production.[13]

The ease of use of the shadoof is perhaps its most important feature. Studies have shown that it is impressively efficient, given the simplicity of its design. Still, it is essential to recognize that shadoofs, while easing the physical demands of water retrieval, require manual labor, posing a barrier for individuals with certain physical disabilities.[7]

Names

[edit]
  • Shadoof or shaduf comes from the Arabic word شادوف, šādūf.
  • It is also called a lift,[4] well pole, well sweep, or simply a sweep in the US.[2] A less common English translation is swape.[3]
  • Picotah (or picota) is a Portuguese loan word.
  • It is also called a jiégāo (桔槹) in Chinese.
  • The Tamil name is thulla (துலா), while the Telugu name is ethaamu (ఏతాము) or ethamu (ఏతము).
  • It was also known by the Ancient Greek name kēlōn (κήλων) or kēlōneion (κηλώνειον); this term (קילון) is also borrowed in Mishnaic Hebrew.
  • In Ukrainian, it is called krynychnyi zhuravel (криничний журавель, "well crane") for its shape; it is also known as zvid (звід).
  • In Hungarian, it is known as gémeskút (literally, "heron wells").
  • In Croatian, it is known as đeram (from Turkish, germe).
[edit]
  • Ancient wall painting in Egypt
    Ancient wall painting in Egypt
  • Painting by Károly Sterio, 1855
    Painting by Károly Sterio, 1855
  • I. Sokolov, 1864
    Painting by Ivan Sokolov, 1864
  • Shadoof in Egypt
    Shadoof in Egypt
  • Well sweep in Pyrohiv Museum, Ukraine
    Well sweep in Pyrohiv Museum, Ukraine
  • Well sweep in Belarus
    Well sweep in Belarus
  • Shadoof in Turkey
    Shadoof in Turkey
  • Well sweep in Germany
    Well sweep in Germany
  • Painting by Ernst Hermann Schlichting, 1852
    Painting by Ernst Hermann Schlichting, 1852
  • Reconstructed 19th century well sweep in the Estonian Open Air Museum
    Reconstructed 19th century well sweep in the Estonian Open Air Museum

In heraldry

[edit]

The use of shadoofs in certain areas influenced heraldry.[11] Below are some examples of heraldic elements of various subdivisions.

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Shadoof

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The shadoof, also spelled shaduf, is a simple hand-operated mechanism designed to lift from sources such as rivers, wells, or canals for purposes, featuring a long wooden pole pivoted on a horizontal crossbar supported by upright posts, with a suspended from one end and a —often a clay pot filled with stones or earth—from the other to facilitate manual operation by a single person. Originating in ancient and first evidenced in after 2000 BC during the 18th Dynasty, the device marked a significant advancement in management by allowing elevation of to higher fields beyond the reach of simpler methods like direct scooping, thereby expanding cultivable land in the and similar arid environments without reliance on draft animals or complex machinery. Its , derived from the principle, enabled laborers to raise approximately 2.5 to 3 cubic meters of per hour, sustaining in regions dependent on seasonal flooding like the , and the shadoof's enduring design persists in rudimentary form across parts of , the , and where modern pumps are unavailable or unaffordable.

Historical Development

Origins and Invention

The shadoof, a counterweighted for elevating , emerged around 3000 BC in , where arid conditions and dependence on the and rivers necessitated tools to from channels to elevated fields beyond natural inundation levels. This innovation addressed the causal imperative of sustaining in a region prone to variable and flooding, enabling surplus production to underpin early urban societies without reliance on animal or mechanical power beyond human leverage. Constructed from local timber for the pole, fibrous ropes, and improvised counterweights like clay-filled jars or stones, the device exemplified adaptation of basic mechanics to environmental constraints, predating widespread use. In , the shadoof appeared by circa 2000 BC, integrated into Valley farming to hoist water above flood plains for perennial cropping in higher terrains. reliefs from this era, such as those in Middle Kingdom sites, illustrate operators maneuvering the apparatus to irrigate distant plots, reflecting its role in amplifying human labor efficiency amid seasonal . The adoption capitalized on the same lever-based advantage, tailored to Egypt's linear riverine , where extending cultivation reduced risks tied to variability.

Spread Across Civilizations

The shaduf diffused from its early attestations in around 3000 BC and after 2000 BC to adjacent regions of the , including Persia by circa 1200 BC, where it supplemented underground channels for elevating water in arid landscapes. Archaeological depictions, such as seals from Mesopotamian sites, and textual records underscore this westward and eastward propagation along trade corridors linking riverine civilizations. In the Mediterranean basin, comparable lever-based water-lifting tools emerged during the Minoan period (circa 2100–1600 BC) and persisted as the kilonion through Classical and , likely via maritime exchanges with Near Eastern cultures. Roman agronomists later incorporated these Hellenistic variants, describing well sweeps in treatises on estate management that emphasized manual irrigation for elevated fields. Eastward transmission reached , where the jiégāo (also termed diaogan) appeared during the around 1600 BC, achieving broad utilization by the Dynasty (11th century–771 BC) as documented in early agricultural texts. In , while origins remain contested with possible independent development, Vedic and subsequent texts reference similar devices by circa 350 BC, reflecting integration into monsoon-dependent farming through overland cultural contacts. This proliferation owed to the shaduf's inherent portability and construction from ubiquitous timber and counterweights, bypassing needs for specialized and enabling adoption in labor-abundant, pre-industrial societies without centralized technological monopolies. Migration of agrarians and merchants along proto-trade networks further disseminated , yielding localized adaptations suited to diverse hydraulic regimes.

Archaeological Evidence

Archaeological evidence for the shadoof primarily consists of visual representations in , as its construction from perishable materials such as wood, rope, and leather counterweights has left few physical traces. The earliest documented depiction appears on a Mesopotamian cylindrical seal dating to circa 2200 BCE, illustrating the device's use for water lifting. In , shadoofs are shown in tomb wall from the New Kingdom period, including those in the 18th Dynasty (circa 1570–1292 BCE), where scenes portray laborers operating the mechanism to fields along the . A notable example is the painting from the tomb of Ipuy, a royal scribe under , located at Thebes and dated to approximately 1250 BCE, which captures the shadoof in a garden context. These artistic records provide direct empirical confirmation of the tool's employment in agricultural practices, distinct from textual inferences. Later Mesopotamian evidence includes reliefs from the Assyrian period, around the BCE, depicting similar lever-based water-lifting operations. Physical remnants, such as potential fulcrum supports or post sockets associated with infrastructure, remain elusive due to , though canal systems at sites like those in highlight the context for such devices. No verified skeletal analyses post-2000 specifically link laborer remains to shadoof use via biomechanical markers, underscoring the reliance on iconographic sources for causal reconstruction of its adoption.

Technical Design and Mechanics

Core Components and Construction

The shadoof comprises a long wooden pole balanced over a fulcrum, with a attached via to the longer end and a secured to the shorter end. An upright frame supports the fulcrum, typically formed by two vertical posts connected by a horizontal crosspiece upon which the pole pivots. Materials are sourced locally and include for the pole and frame, for suspending the , and heavy rock or equivalent mass for the to balance loads of up to approximately 60 liters of . The itself is a simple pail, often fashioned from available containers suited to holding without specialized fabrication. Construction demands minimal tools, such as cutting implements for shaping , allowing assembly by individuals or small groups using lashings or joints rather than metal fasteners. Variations in design scale the pole and frame proportions to achieve lift heights from 1 to 4 meters, adapting to well or stream depths while maintaining through the lever principle. This simplicity, combined with non-durable yet replaceable components, supports sustained use in abrasive, sandy environments like those along the , where the tool's basic form has persisted due to ease of repair and low maintenance needs.

Operational Mechanism

The shadoof functions as a first-class , with a fulcrum positioned between the on the short arm and the water suspended from the long arm via a . The derives from the principle of torque equilibrium, where the operator's downward force applied at the greater distance from the fulcrum on the long arm produces a sufficient to counterbalance the load torque from the water-filled , offset by the 's opposing on the short arm. This ratio of arm lengths typically yields a force multiplication factor of 2 to 5, reducing the input force required relative to direct lifting. In operation, the —commonly a heavy clay or stone-filled —holds the empty elevated above the source. The operator pulls downward on attached to the distal end of the long arm, pivoting the pole to lower the into the for filling. After the is loaded, the operator maneuvers it horizontally to the discharge basin and partially releases tension, enabling the 's descent to pivot the long arm upward and elevate the for pouring. This cyclic process exploits gravitational assistance in the pulling phase and the 's for the return lift, distributing physical effort across the operator's body rather than requiring sustained upward exertion against the full load. The design's human-centric mechanics alleviate fatigue by aligning the pulling motion with natural body leverage, engaging the arms, back, and legs sequentially. Verifiable historical assessments confirm a proficient operator can thereby raise approximately 2,500 liters of per day.

Efficiency and Limitations

The shaduf exhibits of approximately 60%, with input power consumption typically ranging from 71 to 109 watts, reducible through optimal adjustments that halve the manual effort compared to direct hauling without leverage. Output power averages 40 watts, enabling delivery rates of 60.9 liters per minute at lifts of about 2.92 meters, representing high productivity for human-powered devices in shallow contexts. Despite these metrics, the shaduf is constrained to depths of 1 to 6 meters, as the lever arm's mechanics become impractical beyond this range, necessitating alternatives like animal-driven wheels for deeper sources. Its operation demands continuous manual labor, limiting scalability for extensive fields where sustained high-volume lifting exceeds individual endurance, with daily outputs capping at around 2.5 cubic meters per operator. Components such as ropes and pivots are prone to wear without regular maintenance, reducing reliability in arid or high-use environments. In comparative hydraulic assessments, the shaduf outperforms pot or bucket methods in volume per cycle due to leverage-enabled larger loads, but underperforms animal-powered noria wheels for depths exceeding 3 meters or demands beyond small plots, where the latter achieve greater energy efficiency per unit water lifted.

Applications and Uses

Role in Ancient Irrigation

The shadoof enabled the extension of basin irrigation in ancient Egypt by lifting water from the Nile River to higher fields, allowing cultivation beyond the natural floodplains and facilitating multi-crop cycles outside the annual inundation period. Adopted in Upper Egypt after approximately 2000 BC, during the late Middle Kingdom or early New Kingdom, this device supported the irrigation of dry-zone crops such as vegetables and emmer wheat, correlating with archaeological records of increased agricultural intensification and settlement expansion in the Nile Valley from the 18th Dynasty onward (ca. 1550–1295 BC). In integration with canal and basin networks, the shadoof raised for controlled field flooding, enhancing through repeated watering and deposition, which verifiable yield increases—estimated at up to double the flood-dependent output in some models—underpinned and in pharaonic society. from settlement patterns and textual records, such as administrative papyri detailing , links shadoof use to gains without which the labor-intensive pyramid-building eras post-2000 BC would have faced greater resource constraints. Similarly in Mesopotamia, where the shadoof appeared by around 3000 BC, it complemented riverine irrigation from the and , permitting water elevation to elevated fields and basins amid variable flood regimes, thereby stabilizing grain production and enabling urban centers' sustenance as evidenced by cuneiform tablets recording irrigation labor from the third millennium BC. This causal role in yield reliability, rather than dependency, is supported by correlations between water-lifting technologies and expanded in Sumerian and Akkadian periods, fostering agricultural surpluses that drove early .

Modern and Regional Adaptations

The shadoof persists in manual operation for irrigation in rural Egypt, where farmers lift water from the Nile River or canals to fields, particularly in areas with limited access to mechanized equipment. Its use continues in regions of India and other parts of Asia, such as Pakistan's rural Ganges plain, for small-scale farming where electricity is unreliable or absent, allowing cost-effective water elevation without fuel dependency. In parts of sub-Saharan Africa, similar manual devices endure for lifting water 1 to 6 meters from wells or streams to irrigate modest plots, favored in power-scarce locales over diesel pumps due to minimal operational costs. While the core wooden and design remains largely unaltered, minor regional modifications include substituting or lightweight metals for the pole in humid Asian environments to enhance against wear, though these changes do not fundamentally alter the human-powered . Motorized variants are rare and typically involve attaching small engines to the sweep arm, but adoption is limited by challenges and higher upfront costs in low-income settings. Performance analyses from the indicate the shadoof achieves discharge rates of approximately 0.5 to 1 cubic meter per hour per operator, sufficient for irrigating small or plots of under 0.5 hectares, with human effort as the primary input. Comparisons with fuel-powered pumps reveal the shadoof's lower —yielding 10-20% less volume and supporting reduced outputs—but its zero-emission profile from manual labor contrasts with the carbon and burdens of diesel alternatives, rendering it viable for eco-conscious or fuel-unavailable contexts. This persistence underscores the device's economic rationale in unelectrified rural economies, where initial investment under $50 per unit and no ongoing energy expenses outweigh efficiency deficits for subsistence farming.

Cultural and Symbolic Aspects

Terminology and Names

The term "shadoof" entered English from šādūf, denoting a counterbalanced pole for lifting water, with the recording its first use in 1836 by orientalist . An alternative , "shaduf," appears in dictionaries such as , reflecting phonetic variations in -to-English adaptation. In regions outside the , analogous devices bear distinct local names tied to indigenous languages and independent inventions, underscoring the absence of a singular global term; for instance, ancient refer to it as zirigum, predating nomenclature. In , the device is termed denkli or paecottah (also spelled picotta), terms derived from regional vernaculars and documented in historical accounts of Indian practices. East Asian variants include the Chinese jiégāo (also diaogan), associated with early lever-based water-lifting systems in texts from the onward, evidencing parallel technological evolution without evident diffusion from Mesopotamian or Egyptian sources prior to extensive trade routes. European and equivalents, such as "well sweep" or "swape," emerged later in agricultural contexts, often describing similar counterpoise mechanisms in wells rather than riverine . These disparate terminologies align with archaeological and textual evidence of convergent across isolated civilizations, as no shared etymological root links pre-contact usages in , the Indus Valley, and ancient .

Representations in Art and Heraldry

Depictions of the shadoof appear in ancient Egyptian tomb paintings from the New Kingdom period, illustrating its role in irrigation. A specific example is preserved in the Tomb of Ipuy (TT217) at Deir el-Medina, dating to the reign of Ramesses II (ca. 1279–1213 B.C.), where a scene shows a gardener employing a shaduf to water pomegranate plants. These artworks, often found in Theban necropolis tombs, emphasize the device's operational aspects through detailed figures manipulating the lever and counterweight. Earlier evidence exists from , with the shadoof represented on a from the late Akkadian period, circa 2200 B.C. This glyptic art form captures the mechanism in a compact scene, predating Egyptian illustrations and suggesting origins in the . In , motifs resembling the shadoof, typically as well sweeps, occur infrequently in local European coats of arms, particularly in rural areas of and Czechia where such tools were traditionally employed for water lifting. Examples include the arms of Holice in Czechia and Börnsen in , featuring the device to evoke agricultural heritage. These instances lack broader symbolic adoption across heraldic traditions.

Broader Impacts

Agricultural and Economic Effects

The adoption of the shadoof in around 1500 BCE enabled farmers to lift water to higher elevations, extending to lands beyond the 's basin and increasing cultivable area by facilitating controlled water distribution to elevated fields. This capability supported higher crop yields through supplemental outside the annual cycle, allowing for additional harvests of staples like and , which generated agricultural surpluses sufficient to buffer against variable and sustain non-farming populations. Such productivity gains correlated with economic expansions during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE), including population growth in the Valley and trade networks exporting grain to regions like the and . Economically, the shadoof's construction from locally available , , and counterweights—requiring minimal capital—empowered individual smallholders or units to manage independently, circumventing the need for large-scale communal labor or state-directed maintenance that characterized basin systems. This accessibility reduced dependency on elite-controlled water resources, promoting decentralized agricultural operations and contributing to broader socioeconomic resilience in riverine societies by enabling surplus-oriented farming without heavy external inputs. Verifiable archaeological evidence from settlement patterns in links shadoof use to intensified local production, which underpinned trade in commodities and early hubs like Thebes. Despite these advantages, the device's reliance on manual operation imposed labor constraints, with a single operator typically lifting 10–20 liters per cycle at rates of 20–30 cycles per hour, limiting its for vast estates without multiple units or shifts. Compared to pre-shadoof methods like manual bucketing, it alleviated physical strain by leveraging leverage and principles, distributing effort more evenly and reducing injury risk from repetitive heavy lifting. Empirically, this fostered individual resourcefulness over exploitative alternatives such as corvée-mobilized basin digging, which demanded coordinated group labor under centralized authority, though the shadoof's daily demands still tied operators to fields during dry periods, constraining mobility.

Technological Comparisons and Legacy

The shadoof provided a over manual carrying, enabling one operator to lift from depths of 1 to 6 meters with reduced physical strain by distributing effort across leverage and . evaluations report efficiencies around 60%, with typical outputs of 60.9 liters per minute at 40 watts of input, far exceeding the intermittent and laborious yields of hand-portage methods that lacked such amplification. However, it yielded lower volumes than later devices like the wheels, which harnessed animal or hydraulic power to deliver 50,000 to 200,000 liters per hour for sustained, large-scale , though norias demanded greater setup complexity and were limited in lift height to roughly half their diameter. In the lineage of water-lifting technologies, the shadoof's counterbalanced preceded and informed intermittent human-powered pumps, contrasting with continuous-flow innovations like the Archimedean screw, which prioritized steady elevation over variable-height adaptability but shared roots in ancient hydraulic needs. Empirical assessments of operator technique highlight the 's intrinsic efficiency for unmechanized contexts, minimizing peak exertion through balanced pivoting without reliance on or animal traction. The shadoof's principles endure in low-infrastructure settings, where studies confirm its niche superiority for micro-scale tasks—lifting up to 2.5 cubic daily per unit—over bulkier successors, avoiding obsolescence in areas prioritizing and minimal input over mechanized volume. This continuity reflects causal advantages of simple in resource-scarce environments, sustaining agricultural viability without ideological imperatives for wholesale replacement.

References

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  2. https://www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile/
  3. https://engineeringthepast.wordpress.com/2018/11/16/shadoof-ancient-egyptian-water-lifting-technology/
  4. https://ancientengrtech.wisc.edu/ancient-egypt-water-engineering/
  5. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/technology/history-energy-ancient-egypt
  6. http://www.romanaqueducts.info/technicalintro/waterlifting.htm
  7. https://sswm.info/content/shadouf
  8. https://www.academia.edu/110731142/The_Water_Lifting_Devices_and_the_Origin_of_Ancient_Mechanics
  9. https://elibrary.asabe.org/azdez.asp?JID=3&AID=5769&CID=aeaj1999&v=15&i=3&T=2&redirType=
  10. https://www.academia.edu/22065739/Performance_Characteristics_of_the_Shaduf_A_Manual_Water_Lifting_Device
  11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274345274_Performance_characteristics_of_the_shaduf_a_manual_water-lifting_device
  12. https://akvopedia.org/wiki/Counterpoise_lift
  13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281322173_shaduf
  14. https://www.britannica.com/technology/shaduf
  15. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281842543_Evolution_of_Water_Lifting_Devices_Pumps_over_the_Centuries_Worldwide
  16. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/016788099390058W
  17. https://www.oed.com/dictionary/shadoof_n
  18. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/shadoof
  19. https://www.definitions.net/definition/shadoof
  20. https://www.bridgemanimages.com/en-US/noartistknown/egyptian-tomb-painting-shadoof-used-for-irrigation-tomb-painting-19th-dynasty-from-tomb-of-ipuy-at/nomedium/asset/3148786
  21. https://scholar.archive.org/work/kpd2y5gfijemzpbes4wsdbw4r4/access/ia_file/potts_963/ch14.pdf
  22. https://www.egypttoursportal.com/en-us/blog/ancient-egyptian-civilization/ancient-egypt-farmers/
  23. https://www.conceptsnrec.com/blog/early-water-handling
  24. https://irastudios.org/shadoof-3d-explanation/
  25. https://www.ecomena.org/remarkable-water-lifting-noria/
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