Sunar

Sunar, also known as Sonar or Swarnkar, is a caste in India and Nepal traditionally associated with goldsmithing, jewelry crafting, and gold trading.^[1][2] The name derives from the Sanskrit term suvarna meaning gold, underscoring their historical role as artisans skilled in working precious metals for cultural and ceremonial purposes, such as wedding adornments in Hindu traditions.^[3][4] Predominantly Hindu, the community includes subgroups adhering to Sikhism and Islam, and is distributed across South Asia with concentrations in regions like Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and the Terai plains of Nepal.^[5] In India, Sunars are often classified as Other Backward Classes (OBC) due to socioeconomic factors, while in Nepal they are recognized as a Dalit group subject to historical caste-based discrimination and exclusion from upper-caste interactions.^[6][7] Contemporary members have diversified into education, business, and politics, though traditional goldworking persists amid economic shifts like regulatory changes in the jewelry sector.^[6]

Origins and History

Etymology

The term Sunar (also spelled Sonar or Swarnkar in regional variants) originates as an occupational name for goldsmiths, derived from the Sanskrit compound suvarṇakāra, where suvarṇa denotes "gold" and kāra signifies "maker" or "worker".^[3] This etymology reflects the community's historical specialization in crafting and trading gold and silver jewelry, a role documented across Hindu, Sikh, and Muslim subgroups in South Asia.^[8] In vernacular languages such as Hindi and Nepali, the name aligns with sonā ("gold"), reinforcing its direct link to metallurgy rather than any mythical or tribal ancestry claims sometimes asserted in community lore.^[4] Linguistic evolution from Sanskrit to Prakrit and modern Indo-Aryan forms accounts for phonetic shifts, such as suvarṇa simplifying to sona or suna, with kāra yielding -ar endings common in occupational surnames.^[3] While some subgroups like the Mair Sunar invoke Rajput descent, the name's core meaning remains tied to artisanal labor, unsubstantiated by primary textual evidence predating medieval caste consolidations.^[9] No alternative etymologies from non-Sanskritic sources, such as Dravidian or Perso-Arabic influences, find support in historical linguistics for this caste designation.^[10]

Historical Development and Occupational Roots

The Sunar community's occupational roots are firmly embedded in the artisanal craft of goldsmithing and silversmithing, involving the melting, casting, and engraving of precious metals into jewelry, ornaments, and religious artifacts. This specialization, passed down through familial guilds, positioned Sunars as essential providers of luxury goods and ceremonial items in traditional Hindu, Sikh, and regional economies, often requiring advanced metallurgical knowledge inherited over generations.^[2][4] Etymologically, "Sunar" derives from the Sanskrit suvarṇakāra, meaning "gold worker," underscoring the caste's historical association with sona (gold) processing, a trade that distinguished them from other artisans like blacksmiths. In northern India, particularly Punjab, Sunars emerged as a distinct group during medieval periods, with some subgroups claiming Rajput (Kshatriya) descent from figures like Raja Soni Pal, adopting goldsmithing as a survival strategy amid Islamic invasions to avoid warrior persecution while leveraging metallurgical skills.^[2][8] This occupational shift reflects broader patterns of caste formation through hereditary professions rather than rigid birth ascriptions, though Vaishya classification predominates in orthodox varna systems.^[2] In Nepal, the Sunar caste's development aligned with the 14th-century restructuring of the social order under King Jayasthiti Malla (r. 1382–1395), who codified 64 occupational castes, assigning goldsmiths a mid-tier status akin to Vaishya traders, integrating them into the Kathmandu Valley's guild-based economy. Community lore often links Sunars to the Vishwakarma lineage of divine craftsmen, with myths positing descent from Vishwakarma's sons specializing in metalwork, though such claims gained consolidated form only in the 18th century amid colonial documentation. These narratives, while culturally significant, vary regionally and lack uniform archaeological corroboration, emphasizing instead the practical evolution from ancient Vedic artisan roles to specialized medieval trades.^[11][12]

Geographic Distribution and Demographics

Presence in India

The Sunar community, traditionally associated with goldsmithing, maintains a widespread presence across India, particularly in northern, central, and western states. Ethnographic estimates indicate significant concentrations in Maharashtra (approximately 1,327,000 individuals), Uttar Pradesh (1,189,000), Bihar (745,000), and Madhya Pradesh, with smaller but notable populations in Andhra Pradesh (839,000), Punjab, Odisha, and Rajasthan.^[4] These figures reflect the community's historical migration patterns tied to artisanal trade networks, though exact numbers remain uncertain due to the absence of comprehensive national caste censuses since 1931. The Sunar population is predominantly rural in origin but increasingly urbanized, with members engaged in jewelry trade hubs in cities like Mumbai, Lucknow, and Patna. In terms of official classification, the Sunar caste is designated as Other Backward Classes (OBC) in multiple states, including Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Punjab, acknowledging socio-economic challenges stemming from regulatory changes such as the Gold Control Act of 1962, which curtailed traditional practices.^{[13][14][15][16][17]} This status facilitates access to reservations in education and employment, reflecting the community's shift from specialized craftsmanship to diverse occupations amid economic modernization. Regional subgroups, such as Sonar Aksali in Maharashtra, underscore localized identities within the broader Sunar framework.^[18] Variations exist, with some states like Gujarat listing related subgroups under forward categories, highlighting internal diversity in social mobility.^[19]

Sunar in Nepal

The Sunar, also referred to as Sonar in official records, constitute a distinct occupational caste in Nepal primarily associated with goldsmithing and metalworking. According to the National Population and Housing Census 2021 conducted by the Central Bureau of Statistics, the Sonar population totals 93,380 individuals, representing 0.32% of Nepal's overall population of 29,164,578.^[20] This marks an increase from the 64,335 Sunar enumerated in the 2011 census, reflecting demographic growth amid broader national trends.^[20] The community exhibits a slight male skew, with 47,757 males and 45,623 females, yielding a sex ratio of approximately 105 males per 100 females.^[20] Geographically, Sunar are distributed across Nepal but show a pronounced concentration in the southern Terai belt, particularly Madhesh Province, where 62,183 individuals—about two-thirds of the national total—reside, underscoring their alignment with Madhesi Hindu caste groups.^[20] Secondary hubs include Koshi Province (7,286) and Bagmati Province (5,602), with notable district-level presences in areas like Kathmandu (2,980 in Bagmati) and various Terai districts such as those in Madhesh.^[20] Smaller populations extend to hill and mountain districts, including Lumbini and Gandaki provinces, though these account for under 10% of the total.^[21] This pattern aligns with historical migration and settlement tied to trade networks, favoring lowland economic centers over remote highlands.^[21] Demographically, the Sunar community predominantly follows Hinduism, with over 99% affiliation, and speaks languages such as Maithili and Bhojpuri reflective of Terai linguistic diversity.^[21] Urban-rural divides show higher densities in municipal areas conducive to artisanal professions, though precise breakdowns by development region indicate ongoing shifts toward urban migration for economic opportunities beyond traditional crafts.^[20] As a marginalized occupational group within Nepal's caste framework, Sunar face socioeconomic challenges, including limited access to higher education and formal sector jobs, contributing to their underrepresentation in national aggregates relative to larger ethnic clusters.^[22]

Communities in Other Regions

In Pakistan, Sunar communities, predominantly Muslim, are present across various provinces, including Punjab, where they engage in traditional goldsmithing and silverworking occupations.^[23] Subgroups such as the Mair and Tank claim Rajput ancestry, aligning with similar assertions among Sunars in India.^[24] These groups numbered in the thousands in early 20th-century censuses, reflecting historical continuity in artisan roles despite partition-related displacements.^[23] Smaller Sunar populations exist in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, where they form part of the broader artisan castes involved in jewelry craftsmanship, though concentrated less densely than in India.^[4] In these regions, community sizes remain modest, with limited documentation on organized associations or demographic shifts, attributable to the occupational rather than territorial basis of Sunar identity.^[4] Beyond South Asia, verifiable records of distinct Sunar communities in Western countries like the UK, USA, or Canada are scarce, suggesting integration into general South Asian diaspora networks without prominent caste-specific institutions.^[4] Migration patterns indicate individual or family-based relocations for economic opportunities, often in jewelry trade, but without evidence of large-scale settlements or cultural enclaves as seen in other castes.

Social Structure

Traditional Varna Classification

In the classical Hindu varna system, the Sunar community, known for goldsmithing and metal craftsmanship, is predominantly associated with the Shudra varna, which encompasses artisans, laborers, and those engaged in service-oriented manual occupations. This classification stems from the occupational division in ancient texts, where skilled trades like metallurgy and jewelry-making fall under Shudra duties, distinct from the mercantile focus of Vaishya or the priestly/warrior roles of higher varnas.^[25][26] Regional variations exist; for instance, in Nepal's adaptation of the varna framework, Sunar is explicitly grouped among Shudra sub-castes alongside other artisan communities such as Kami and Lohar, reflecting a hierarchical structure borrowed from broader Hindu traditions but localized through jati (sub-caste) integrations.^[27] In contrast, some Indian sources describe Sunar as part of the Vaishya varna, emphasizing the commercial trading of gold and silver that accompanies their craft, which aligns with Vaishya responsibilities for commerce and agriculture.^[2] Community narratives often challenge these assignments, with legends claiming Kshatriya descent or affiliation to the Vishwakarma deity—regarded as the divine architect—leading subgroups to assert elevated status akin to Brahmin or Vishwabrahmin artisans. Such self-perceptions, however, frequently conflict with orthodox hierarchies, where Vishwakarma-following castes like Sunar are viewed as Shudra or even lower by traditional Brahmin authorities, highlighting tensions between occupational reality and aspirational mythology in varna interpretations.^[2][28]

Subgroups and Internal Factions

The Sunar community, also known as Sonar or Soni in various regions, features internal divisions primarily along regional, occupational, and claimed varna lines, with endogamous subgroups influencing marriage practices and social identity. In Punjab and adjacent areas like Himachal Pradesh, the primary subgroups are the Mair and Tank, both asserting descent from Rajput lineages and rejecting lower artisanal origins in favor of Kshatriya status.^[29][30] The Mair subgroup, in particular, emphasizes Kshatriya heritage, tracing ancestry to ancient warrior clans, while the Tank subgroup similarly positions itself as Rajput, with Muslim Sunars in Punjab adopting the Tank Rajput label almost universally.^[29] These claims reflect efforts to elevate social standing beyond traditional goldsmithing roles, though historical records from colonial ethnographies note their primary occupation as metalworking.^[29] In central and eastern India, subgroups often align with geographic origins and varna assertions, such as the Ayodhyawasi or Purabiya Sonars, who identify as a Vaishya subcaste linked to ancient trading communities in Ayodhya and surrounding areas.^[2] Other regional variants include Kanujia Sonars from Kannauj, Mahawar Sonars, and territorially defined groups like Baghelkhandi, Bundelkhandi, and Awadhia in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, where divisions reinforce local endogamy and craft specializations.^[2][8] These subgroups maintain distinct gotras—clan lineages numbering up to 52 by community reckoning, including Gund, Bhole, Kuhal, and Vaid—governing marriage alliances to preserve purity and avoid consanguinity.^[31] In Nepal, where Sunars form a recognized occupational caste under the Vishwakarma umbrella, internal factions are less pronounced, with the community largely unified by goldsmithing traditions and lacking the varna-disputing subgroups seen in India; however, regional Nepali Sunars may align with broader Terai or hill distinctions influencing subtle social hierarchies.^[21] Tensions within the broader Sunar network occasionally arise over status claims, such as Kshatriya versus Vaishya affiliations, which impact access to community resources and inter-caste alliances, though no major schisms or formal factions have been documented in recent censuses or ethnographic surveys.^[2][8]

Occupations and Economic Contributions

Traditional Goldsmithing and Trade Practices

The Sunar caste has long specialized in goldsmithing as a hereditary occupation embedded in the jajmani system, where artisans provided jewelry, ritual objects, and repair services to agrarian patrons in exchange for grain, livestock, or labor obligations, ensuring economic interdependence in rural India.^[32] This caste-based division of labor positioned Sunars as ritual specialists, leveraging gold's symbolic purity in Hindu customs to craft items like ornaments and temple idols, with skills transmitted via master-apprentice training focused on manual precision rather than formal education.^[32] Core techniques encompassed melting gold or silver alloys in crucibles, hammering sheets into wires or plates using manual presses, soldering joints for structural integrity, and specialized finishing like engraving motifs or fitting gemstones into settings, often divided among workshop roles for efficiency in producing intricate pieces.^[32] These methods relied on basic hand tools—files, blowpipes, and anvils—allowing for custom designs tailored to regional aesthetics, such as filigree work or granulation, which demanded high dexterity to manipulate soft metals without machinery.^[32] Trade practices centered on direct client commissions, particularly for wedding jewelry that served as dowry transfers, embodying familial wealth and social status in Hindu traditions across India and Nepal, with Sunars often acting as appraisers to verify purity and weight.^[4] Beyond weddings, they supplied festival adornments and repaired heirlooms, operating from family workshops or village markets where barter supplemented cash transactions, fostering community trust through generational reputation rather than standardized commerce.^[4] In Nepal, Sunars collaborated with related castes like Shakya in Newari jewelry production, employing generational molding techniques to shape gold and silver into ceremonial items such as kantha necklaces, tayo earrings, and tilhari pendants, using hand-forged tools to embed symbolic motifs reflecting prosperity and spiritual protection for rituals and rites of passage.^[33] This craftsmanship preserved pre-industrial methods, prioritizing durability and aesthetic detail over mass output, and integrated into local economies via temple offerings and elite patronage.^[33]

Economic Challenges and Modern Shifts

In India, the Sunar community's traditional goldsmithing profession has declined due to the rise of industrialized jewelry production, competition from mass-manufactured and imported goods, and regulatory measures like the Gold Control Act of 1968, which curtailed unlicensed gold trading and artisanal melting, exacerbating economic hardship for small-scale operators.^[32][6] This shift prompted many states to classify Sunar (also known as Sonar) as Other Backward Classes (OBC), enabling access to reservations in education and public employment to address socioeconomic vulnerabilities.^[6] Urbanization and market changes have driven occupational diversification, with Sunars increasingly engaging in secondary trades such as tailoring, electroplating, automobile repairs, and retail commerce in cities like Delhi and Chandigarh, alongside some entry into salaried roles through improved education access.^[4][34] In Nepal, where Sunars are categorized as Dalits within artisan groups like the Kami, economic challenges are compounded by caste-based discrimination, limiting access to credit, markets, and skilled jobs, resulting in high poverty rates and reliance on informal or agricultural labor amid the erosion of traditional crafts in a capitalist economy.^[35][36] Modern adaptations in Nepal include urban migration for low-wage informal employment and advocacy-led pushes for skill training, though persistent exclusion from private-sector opportunities hinders broader mobility, with Dalit households facing unemployment or underemployment at rates far exceeding national averages.^[36][37] Overall, these shifts reflect a transition from hereditary artisan roles to heterogeneous livelihoods, influenced by globalization and policy interventions, though uneven progress persists due to structural barriers.^[38]

Cultural and Religious Aspects

Religious Affiliations and Practices

The Sunar community is predominantly Hindu, with Vishwakarma regarded as the primary patron deity due to the group's historical association with goldsmithing and craftsmanship, akin to Vishwakarma's role as the divine architect in Hindu mythology.^[12] Subgroups among Sikhs, concentrated in Punjab and Haryana, adhere to Sikh religious tenets while maintaining occupational traditions, and smaller Muslim and Jain Sunar populations exist, though these constitute minorities.^[39][40] In Nepal, Sunars similarly follow Hinduism, emphasizing deities linked to prosperity and trade.^[21] Key practices include the annual Vishwakarma Puja, observed between September 16 and 18, where artisans clean and worship their tools, machinery, and workshops to seek divine blessings for precision, productivity, and protection from mishaps.^[41] Hindu Sunars also participate in festivals like Diwali and Dhanteras, which hold special economic significance as auspicious times for purchasing and crafting gold jewelry, often involving rituals to invoke wealth and success.^[4] Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, receives dedicated worship four times yearly, reflecting the community's reliance on precious metal trade for livelihood.^[8] Sikh Sunars integrate goldsmithing customs with Gurdwara attendance and observance of Sikh festivals such as Baisakhi, while Hindu subgroups may incorporate gotra-based rituals and life-cycle samskaras aligned with broader Vaishnava or Shaiva traditions for prosperity.^[39] These practices underscore a pragmatic spirituality focused on vocational success rather than esoteric philosophy.^[4]

Customs and Community Life

The Sunar community adheres to endogamous marriage practices, with unions typically arranged through family negotiations exclusively within the caste to preserve social and occupational cohesion.^[21] These marriages occur in adulthood and permit divorce and remarriage, reflecting a degree of flexibility compared to stricter Hindu norms in higher varnas.^[21] As traditional goldsmiths, Sunars contribute ritually to broader Hindu ceremonies, such as crafting gold jewelry for dowries in weddings and performing ear-piercing rites for children in higher-caste families, underscoring their integral yet specialized role in community rituals.^[42][43] Sunars observe all major Hindu festivals, integrating devotional practices aimed at prosperity and divine favor, often venerating deities associated with wealth like Lakshmi.^[21] These celebrations reinforce communal bonds through shared feasts and rituals, though specific caste-unique observances remain undocumented in available ethnographic records. Community life centers on artisan networks, historically governed by informal councils resolving disputes over trade and marriage, with a high social status approximating that of Brahmins due to their indispensable craftsmanship.^[21] In contemporary Nepal, Sunar community life has shifted toward education and urban professions, diminishing traditional insularity while maintaining Hindu worship patterns focused on pragmatic spiritualism for economic success.^[21] This evolution, driven by improved schooling access since the mid-20th century, has fostered greater inter-caste interactions without eroding core endogamous customs.^[21]

Socio-Political Status

Classification and Reservation Policies

The Sunar community is classified as an Other Backward Class (OBC) in the central lists applicable to multiple Indian states, including Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi, based on assessments of social, educational, and economic backwardness under the framework established by the Mandal Commission in 1980 and subsequent gazette notifications.^[44][13] This designation excludes Sunars from Scheduled Caste (SC) or Scheduled Tribe (ST) categories, which are reserved for communities facing historical untouchability or indigenous tribal isolation, respectively; Sunars do not meet those criteria as their traditional occupation in goldsmithing aligned them with artisan or trading varnas rather than the most marginalized groups.^[45] Under OBC status, Sunars are eligible for a 27% reservation quota in central government educational institutions and public sector employment, as mandated by Article 16(4) of the Indian Constitution and implemented via the Central Educational Institutions (Reservation in Admission) Act, 2006. State-level policies mirror this at varying percentages—such as 21% in Rajasthan or 27% in Uttar Pradesh—allowing access to seats in higher education, age relaxations in job recruitments (typically 3–5 years), and fee concessions, subject to income-based creamy layer exclusions for families exceeding annual incomes of ₹8 lakh as of 2017 updates.^[15][13] In states like Maharashtra, specific subgroups such as Marwadi Sunar are enumerated in OBC lists, reflecting regional occupational identities.^[46] Classification disputes occasionally arise, with some Sunar subgroups advocating for delisting from OBC due to claims of Vaishya heritage or improved economic status in urban areas, though official surveys, including the 2006 National Sample Survey on OBC identification, affirm their backwardness metrics like lower literacy rates (around 60–70% in community averages versus national highs) and underrepresentation in higher professions.^[19] No nationwide SC or ST inclusion has been granted, preserving OBC as the primary affirmative action avenue, with periodic reviews by the National Commission for Backward Classes ensuring data-driven continuity as of the latest 2023 validations.

Debates on Discrimination and Social Mobility

The classification of the Sunar (also known as Sonar or Swarnkar) community as Other Backward Classes (OBC) in most Indian states, such as Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, stems from the documented economic stagnation in goldsmithing, exacerbated by the Gold Control Act of 1962, which curtailed artisanal gold trading and manufacturing, resulting in reduced incomes and occupational displacement for many families. This status entitles them to reservations in education and public employment, typically ranging from 27% under the central list to state-specific quotas like 19% in Maharashtra for OBCs including artisan groups. Proponents of this classification, including community representatives before the National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC), emphasize empirical indicators of underrepresentation in higher education and professional sectors, with surveys showing Sunar households often relying on informal labor or migration due to skill obsolescence in traditional crafts.^[47][6] Critics, however, argue that OBC status overstates discrimination, as Sunars, positioned as artisan Vaishyas in varna hierarchies, historically avoided the ritual untouchability and social exclusion faced by Scheduled Castes, enabling stronger kinship networks for business revival in urban jewelry markets post-liberalization in the 1990s. Government data from the Mandal Commission (1980) and subsequent NCBC reviews highlight that while average Sunar literacy rates lag behind forward castes (around 70-80% in northern states per 2011 Census aggregates for artisan OBCs), their economic recovery through diversified trades—such as modern welding or retail—indicates causal factors like market shifts rather than entrenched prejudice as primary barriers to mobility. In Uttar Pradesh, for instance, Sunars are subcategorized under "more backward" OBCs alongside groups like Kurmis, prompting internal debates on sub-quotas to prioritize the neediest, as creamy layer exclusions (incomes above ₹8 lakh annually) exclude upwardly mobile subsets.^[48] Debates on social mobility underscore tensions between reservation benefits and merit-based advancement, with longitudinal studies on OBC artisans showing intergenerational shifts: a 2013 analysis of northern Indian castes found OBC groups like goldsmiths achieving 15-20% occupational diversification into services by the 2000s, aided by quotas but hindered by endogamous marriage practices that limit broader networks. Empirical evidence from the India Human Development Survey (2005-2012) reveals OBC households, including Sunars, experiencing income growth of 2-3% annually, yet persistent caste-based hiring biases in private sectors—documented in field audits where OBC resumes receive 20-25% fewer callbacks—constrain full mobility, fueling demands for extended quotas amid claims of upper-caste dominance in elite professions. Opponents counter that such policies entrench caste identities, citing cases where affluent Sunar jewelers in cities like Mumbai opt out of reservations, suggesting economic criteria over caste for targeting aid to avoid subsidizing the relatively privileged.^[49][50]

Notable Individuals

Achievements in Arts and Politics

Raj Babbar, born on June 23, 1952, in Tundla, Uttar Pradesh, to a family from the Sunar community, emerged as a prominent figure in Indian cinema during the 1980s, starring in over 30 Hindi films including notable roles that showcased his versatility as a character actor.^[51] His acting career, which began with films like Bara Dari in 1982, intersected with political themes in several productions, contributing to public discourse through portrayals of social issues prevalent in North Indian society.^[52] Transitioning to politics, Babbar joined the Indian National Congress and secured election to the Lok Sabha from Agra in 2009, marking his entry as a three-time member of the lower house of Parliament.^[53] He also served two terms in the Rajya Sabha, representing Uttar Pradesh, and held the position of Uttar Pradesh Congress Committee president from July 2016 to 2018, during which he led the party's campaign efforts in the state amid challenging electoral dynamics.^[54] In 2024, Babbar contested the Lok Sabha elections from Gurugram as the Congress candidate, highlighting his ongoing commitment to representing OBC communities like the Sunar in Haryana's political landscape.^[55] Babbar's dual pursuits in arts and politics exemplify the Sunar community's limited but notable forays into public life beyond traditional trades, often leveraging cultural visibility for political mobilization in regions where the caste holds OBC status.^[56] His career reflects a pattern of cross-domain influence, though broader representation of Sunars in high-profile arts or national politics remains sparse, with most community members concentrated in artisan professions rather than elite creative or legislative roles.^[17]

Contributions to Business and Other Fields

Members of the Sunar community, traditionally goldsmiths, have contributed to India's jewelry industry through crafting, trading, and refining gold and silver ornaments, often incorporating precious and semi-precious stones.^[4] This occupational specialization has positioned them as key players in a sector vital to the national economy, with activities extending to diamond cutting and idol design.^[4] Their work supports both domestic consumption and export markets, where gold jewelry constitutes a significant portion of India's $70 billion-plus annual gold trade as of recent estimates.^[39] The community's economic role has historically included money lending, leveraging jewelry as collateral to provide financial services in rural and urban settings, enhancing local credit access.^[4] This practice underscores their wealth accumulation, derived from skilled artisanal production rather than large-scale industrialization.^[32] In contemporary shifts, some Sunars have diversified beyond traditional goldsmithing into ancillary trades such as auto parts distribution and stationery sales, adapting to urban economic demands.^[4] While specific high-profile entrepreneurs from the community in non-traditional sectors remain less documented, their sustained involvement in jewelry-related enterprises has bolstered supply chains and craftsmanship standards in regions like Punjab, Haryana, and Maharashtra.^[38] These contributions reflect a transition from hereditary artisanal roles to broader commercial participation amid modernization.^[38]