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Odisha (Odia: oṛiśā, pronounced [oˈɽisa] ⓘ), formerly Orissa (the official name until 2011),[19] is a state located in Eastern India. It is the eighth-largest state by area, and the eleventh-largest by population, with over 41 million inhabitants. The state also has the third-largest population of Scheduled Tribes in India.[20] It neighbours the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal to the north, Chhattisgarh to the west, and Andhra Pradesh to the south. Odisha has a coastline of 485 kilometres (301 mi) along the Bay of Bengal in the Indian Ocean.[21] The region is also known as Utkaḷa and is mentioned by this name in India's national anthem, Jana Gana Mana.

Key Information

The ancient kingdom of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka in 261 BCE resulting in the Kalinga War, coincides with the borders of modern-day Odisha.[22] The modern boundaries of Odisha were demarcated by the British Indian government, the Orissa Province was established on 1 April 1936, consisting of the Odia-speaking districts of Bihar and Orissa Province, Madras Presidency and Central Provinces.[22] Utkala Divas (lit. 'Odisha Day') is celebrated on 1 April.[23] Cuttack was made the capital of the region by Anantavarman Chodaganga in c. 1135,[24] after which the city was used as the capital by many rulers, through the British era until 1948. Thereafter, Bhubaneswar became the capital of Odisha.[25]

Etymology

[edit]
See also: History of Odisha § Historical names of Odisha

The terms Odisha and Orissa (Odia: ଓଡ଼ିଶା, Oṛissa) derive from the ancient Prakrit word "Odda Visaya" (also "Udra Bibhasha" or "Odra Bibhasha") as in the Tirumalai inscription of Rajendra Chola I, which is dated to 1025.[26] Sarala Das, who translated the Mahabharata into the Odia language in the 15th century, calls the region 'Odra Rashtra' as Odisha. The inscriptions of Kapilendra Deva of the Gajapati Kingdom (1435–67) on the walls of temples in Puri call the region Odisha or Odisha Rajya.[27]

In 2011, the English rendering of ଓଡ଼ିଶା was changed from "Orissa" to "Odisha", and the name of its language from "Oriya" to "Odia", by the passage of the Orissa (Alteration of Name) Bill, 2010 and the Constitution (113th Amendment) Bill, 2010 in the Parliament. The Hindi rendering उड़ीसा (uṛīsā) was also modified to ओड़िशा (or̥iśā). After a brief debate, the lower house, Lok Sabha, passed the bill and amendment on 9 November 2010.[28] On 24 March 2011, Rajya Sabha, the upper house of Parliament, also passed the bill and the amendment.[29] The changes in spelling were made with the intention of having the English and Hindi renditions conform to the Odia transliteration.[30] However, the underlying Odia texts were nevertheless transliterated incorrectly as per the Hunterian system, the official national transliteration standard, in which the transliterations would be Orisha and Oria instead.

History

[edit]
Main articles: History of Odisha and Historic sites in Odisha
Lingaraja Temple built by the Somavanshi king Jajati Keshari

Prehistoric Acheulian tools dating to Lower Paleolithic era have been discovered in various places in the region, implying an early settlement by humans.[31] Kalinga has been mentioned in ancient texts like Mahabharata, Vayu Purana and Mahagovinda Suttanta.[32][33]

According to political scientist Sudama Misra, the Kalinga janapada originally comprised the area covered by the Puri and Ganjam districts.[34] The Sabar people of Odisha have also been mentioned in the Mahabharata.[35][36] Baudhayana mentions Kalinga as not yet being influenced by Vedic traditions, implying it followed mostly tribal traditions.[37]

Hathigumpha on the Udayagiri Hills built in c. 150 BC
Shanti Stupa at Dhauli is the location where Kalinga War was fought in c. 260 BC

Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty conquered Kalinga in the bloody Kalinga War in 261 BCE,[38] which was the eighth year of his reign.[39] According to his own edicts, in that war about 100,000 people were killed, 150,000 were captured and more were affected.[38] The resulting bloodshed and suffering of the war is said to have deeply affected Ashoka. He turned into a pacifist and converted to Buddhism.[39][40]

By c. 150 BCE, Emperor Kharavela, who was possibly a contemporary of Demetrius I of Bactria,[41] conquered a major part of the Indian sub-continent. Kharavela was a Jain ruler. He also built the monastery atop the Udayagiri hill.[42] Subsequently, the region was ruled by monarchs, such as Samudragupta[43] and Shashanka.[44] It was also a part of Harsha's empire.[45]

The city of Brahmapur in Odisha is also known to have been the capital of the Pauravas during the closing years of 4th century CE. Nothing was heard from the Pauravas from about the 3rd century CE, because they were annexed by the Yaudheya Republic, who in turn submitted to the Mauryans. It was only at the end of 4th century CE, that they established royalty at Brahmapur, after about 700 years.

Later, the kings of the Somavamsi dynasty began to unite the region. By the reign of Yayati II, c. 1025 CE, they had integrated the region into a single kingdom. Yayati II is supposed to have built the Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneswar.[22] They were replaced by the Eastern Ganga dynasty. Notable rulers of the dynasty were Anantavarman Chodaganga, who began reconstruction on the present-day Shri Jagannath Temple in Puri (c. 1135), and Narasimhadeva I, who constructed the Konark temple (c. 1250).[46][47]

The Eastern Ganga Dynasty was followed by the Gajapati Kingdom. The region resisted integration into the Mughal empire until 1568, when it was conquered by Sultanate of Bengal.[48] Mukunda Deva, who is considered the last independent king of Kalinga, was defeated and was killed in battle by a rebel Ramachandra Bhanja. Ramachandra Bhanja himself was killed by Bayazid Khan Karrani.[49] In 1591, Man Singh I, then governor of Bihar, led an army to take Odisha from the Karranis of Bengal. They agreed to treaty because their leader Qutlu Khan Lohani had recently died. But they then broke the treaty by attacking the temple town of Puri. Man Singh returned in 1592 and pacified the region.[50]

In 1751, the Nawab of Bengal Alivardi Khan ceded the region to the Maratha Empire.[22]

The British had occupied the Northern Circars, comprising the southern coast of Odisha, as a result of the Second Carnatic War by 1760, and incorporated them into the Madras Presidency gradually.[51] In 1803, the British ousted the Marathas from the Puri-Cuttack region of Odisha during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. The northern and western districts of Odisha were incorporated into the Bengal Presidency.[52]

The Orissa famine of 1866 caused an estimated 1 million deaths.[53] Following this, large-scale irrigation projects were undertaken.[54] In 1903, the Utkal Sammilani organisation was founded to demand the unification of Odia-speaking regions into one state.[55] On 1 April 1912, the Bihar and Orissa Province was formed.[56] On 1 April 1936, Bihar and Orissa were split into separate provinces.[57] The new province of Orissa came into existence on a linguistic basis during the British rule in India, with Sir John Austen Hubback as the first governor.[57][58] Following India's independence, on 15 August 1947, 27 princely states signed the document to join Orissa.[59] Most of the Orissa Tributary States, a group of princely states, acceded to Orissa in 1948, after the collapse of the Eastern States Union.[60]

Geography

[edit]
Main article: Geography of Odisha
Mahanadi river near Cuttack

Odisha lies between the latitudes 17.780N and 22.730N, and between longitudes 81.37E and 87.53E. The state has an area of 155,707 km2, which is 4.87% of total area of India, and a coastline of 450 km.[61] In the eastern part of the state lies the coastal plain. It extends from the Subarnarekha River in the north to the Rushikulya River in the south. The lake Chilika is part of the coastal plains. The plains are rich in fertile silt deposited by the six major rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal: Subarnarekha, Budhabalanga, Baitarani, Brahmani, Mahanadi, and Rushikulya.[61] The National Rice Research Institute (NRRI), a Food and Agriculture Organization-recognised rice gene bank and research institute, is situated on the banks of Mahanadi in Cuttack.[62] The stretch between Puri and Bhadrak in Odisha juts out a little into the sea, making it vulnerable to any cyclonic activity.[63]

Satellite view of the Mahanadi river delta

Three-quarters of the state is covered in mountain ranges. Deep and broad valleys have been made in them by rivers. These valleys have fertile soil and are densely populated. Odisha also has plateaus and rolling uplands, which have lower elevation than the plateaus.[61] The highest point in the state is Deomali at 1,672 metres in Koraput district. Some other high peaks are: Sinkaram (1,620 m), Golikoda (1,617 m), and Yendrika (1,582 metres).[18]

Climate

[edit]

The state experiences four meteorological seasons: winter (January to February), pre-monsoon season (March to May), south-west monsoon season (June to September) and north east monsoon season (October–December). However, locally the year is divided into six traditional seasons (or rutus): Grishma (summer), Barsha (rainy season), Sharata (autumn), Hemanta (dewy),Sheeta(winter season) and Basanta (spring).[61]

Mean Temp and Precipitation of Selected Weather Stations[64]
Bhubaneswar
(1952–2000) 		Balasore
(1901–2000) 		Gopalpur
(1901–2000) 		Sambalpur
(1901–2000)
Max (°C) Min (°C) Rainfall (mm) Max (°C) Min (°C) Rainfall (mm) Max (°C) Min (°C) Rainfall (mm) Max (°C) Min (°C) Rainfall (mm)
January 28.5 15.5 13.1 27.0 13.9 17.0 27.2 16.9 11.0 27.6 12.6 14.2
February 31.6 18.6 25.5 29.5 16.7 36.3 28.9 19.5 23.6 30.1 15.1 28.0
March 35.1 22.3 25.2 33.7 21.0 39.4 30.7 22.6 18.1 35.0 19.0 20.9
April 37.2 25.1 30.8 36.0 24.4 54.8 31.2 25.0 20.3 39.3 23.5 14.2
May 37.5 26.5 68.2 36.1 26.0 108.6 32.4 26.7 53.8 41.4 27.0 22.7
June 35.2 26.1 204.9 34.2 26.2 233.4 32.3 26.8 138.1 36.9 26.7 218.9
July 32.0 25.2 326.2 31.8 25.8 297.9 31.0 26.1 174.6 31.1 24.9 459.0
August 31.6 25.1 366.8 31.4 25.8 318.3 31.2 25.9 195.9 30.7 24.8 487.5
September 31.9 24.8 256.3 31.7 25.5 275.8 31.7 25.7 192.0 31.7 24.6 243.5
October 31.7 23.0 190.7 31.3 23.0 184.0 31.4 23.8 237.8 31.7 21.8 56.6
November 30.2 18.8 41.7 29.2 17.8 41.6 29.5 19.7 95.3 29.4 16.2 17.6
December 28.3 15.2 4.9 26.9 13.7 6.5 27.4 16.4 11.4 27.2 12.1 4.8

Biodiversity

[edit]
Main articles: Flora and fauna of Odisha and Forests in Odisha

According to a Forest Survey of India report released in 2012, Odisha has 48,903 km2 of wild forest, covering 31.41% of the state's total area. The forests are classified into areas of dense forest (7,060 km2), medium dense forest (21,366 km2), open forest (forest without closed canopy; 20,477 km2) and scrub forest or scrubland (4,734 km2). The state also has bamboo forests (10,518 km2) and tidal areas of mangrove swamp (221 km2). The state is gradually losing its wilderness areas to timber smuggling, deforestation, destructive mining, and general urban industrialisation, as well as livestock grazing. There have been attempts at conservation and reforestation.[65]

Due to the climate and good rainfall, Odisha's evergreen and moist forests are uniquely suitable habitats for wild orchids. Around 130 species have been reported from the state.[66] Around 97 of them are found in Mayurbhanj district alone. The Orchid House of the Nandankanan Zoological Park maintains some of these species.[67]

Simlipal National Park is a protected wildlife area and Bengal tiger reserve spread over 2,750 km2 of the northern part of Mayurbhanj district. The park has around 1,078 species of plants, including 94 of the aforementioned orchids. The sal is the primary tree species. For fauna, the park is home to around 55 species of mammal, including the Bengal tiger, chital, chousingha, common langur, gaur, Indian elephant, Indian giant squirrel, jungle cat, leopard, muntjac, sambar, small Indian civet and wild boar. There are over 300 species of birds in the park, such as the common hill myna, as well as grey, Indian pied and Malabar pied hornbills. There are also some 60 species of reptiles and amphibians, including the famed king cobra, plus banded krait and tricarinate hill turtle. There is also a mugger crocodile breeding programme in nearby Ramtirtha.[68]

The Chandaka Elephant Sanctuary is a 190 km2 protected area near the capital city, Bhubaneswar. However, urban expansion and over-grazing have reduced the forests, driving the herds of elephants to migrate away, as well as increasing human-elephant conflicts—which sometimes results in injury and death (on both sides). Some elephants have died in conflicts with villagers, while some have died during migration after being accidentally electrocuted by power lines or even hit by trains. Outside the protected area, they are killed by ivory poachers. In 2002, there were about 80 elephants, but by 2012, their numbers had been reduced to 20. Many of the animals have migrated toward the Barbara Reserve forest, Chilika, Nayagarh district, and Athagad.[69][70] Besides elephants, the sanctuary also has leopards, jungle cats and herds of chital.[71]

The Bhitarkanika National Park in Kendrapara district covers 650 km2, of which 150 km2 are mangroves. Gahirmatha Beach, in Bhitarkanika, is the world's largest nesting site for olive ridley sea turtles.[72] In 2013, the Indian Coast Guard initiated Operation Oliver to protect the endangered sea turtle population of the region.[73] Other major nesting grounds for the turtle in the state are Rushikulya, in Ganjam district,[74] and the mouth of the Devi river.[75] The Bhitarkanika sanctuary is also noted for its large population of saltwater crocodiles and Asian water monitors,[76] the second-largest lizard species on earth,[77] in addition to axis deer and rhesus macaques.[76] The coastal mangrove environments are home to several types of mudskippers, including the barred, Boddart's blue-spotted and great blue-spotted mudskippers.[76]

In winter, Bhitarkanika is also visited by migratory birds. Among the many species, both resident and migratory, are kingfishers (including black-capped, collared and common kingfishers), herons (such as black-crowned night, grey, purple and striated herons), Indian cormorants, openbill storks, Oriental white ibis, pheasant-tailed jacana, sarus cranes, spotted owlets and white-bellied sea-eagles.[78][76] The possibly endangered horseshoe crab is also found in this region.[79]

Chilika Lake is a brackish water lagoon on the east coast of Odisha with an area of 1,105 km2. It is connected to the Bay of Bengal by a 35-km-long narrow channel and is a part of the Mahanadi delta. In the dry season, the tides bring in salt water. In the rainy season, the rivers falling into the lagoon decrease its salinity.[80] Birds from places as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal (and other parts of Russia), Central Asia, Southeast Asia, Ladakh and the Himalayas migrate to the lagoon in winter.[81] Among the waterfowl and wading birds spotted there are Eurasian wigeon, pintail, bar-headed goose, greylag goose, greater flamingo, common mallard and Goliath heron.[82][83] The lagoon also has a small population of the endangered Irrawaddy dolphins.[84] The state's coastal region has also had sightings of the rare finless porpoise, as well as the more common bottlenose dolphin, humpback dolphin and spinner dolphins in its waters.[85]

Satapada is situated close to the northeast cape of Chilika Lake and Bay of Bengal. It is famous for dolphin watching in their natural habitat. There is a tiny island en route for watching dolphins, where tourists often take a short stop. Apart from that, this island is also home for tiny red crabs.[86]

According to a census conducted in 2016, there are around 2000 elephants in the state. [87]

Government and politics

[edit]
Odisha State Secretariat at Bhubaneswar
Main article: Government of Odisha

All states in India are governed by a parliamentary system of government based on universal adult franchise.[89][90]

The main parties active in the politics of Odisha are the Biju Janata Dal, the Indian National Congress and Bharatiya Janata Party.[91] Currently, BJP , who won for the first time, formed the government after winning the majority in 2024 Odisha Legislative Assembly election. Mohan Charan Majhi is the 17th Chief Minister of Odisha.[92]

Legislative assembly

[edit]
Main articles: Odisha Legislative Assembly and Vidhan Sabha

The Odisha state has a unicameral legislature.[93] The Odisha Legislative Assembly consists of 147 elected members,[91] and special office bearers such as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker, who are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker, or by the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence.[94] Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, although the titular head of government is the Governor of Odisha. The governor is appointed by the President of India. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly.[95] The 147 elected representatives are called Members of the Legislative Assembly, or MLAs. One MLA may be nominated from the Anglo-Indian community by the governor.[96] The term of the office is for five years, unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term.[94]

The judiciary is composed of the Odisha High Court, located at Cuttack, and a system of lower courts.

Subdivisions

[edit]
Main article: List of districts of Odisha

Odisha has been divided into 30 districts. These 30 districts have been placed under three different revenue divisions to streamline their governance. The divisions are North, Central and South, with their headquarters at Sambalpur, Cuttack and Berhampur respectively. Each division consists of ten districts and has as its administrative head a Revenue Divisional Commissioner (RDC).[97] The position of the RDC in the administrative hierarchy is that between that of the district administration and the state secretariat.[98] The RDCs report to the Board of Revenue, which is headed by a senior officer of the Indian Administrative Service.[97]

Map of districts of Odisha
Division-wise list of districts[99]
Northern Division (HQ – Sambalpur) Central Division (HQ – Cuttack) Southern Division (HQ – Berhampur)

Each district is administered by a Collector and district magistrate, who is appointed from the Indian Administrative Service or a very senior officer from Odisha Administrative Service.[100][101] The collector and district magistrate is responsible for collecting the revenue and maintaining law and order in the district. Each district is separated into sub-divisions, each governed by a sub-collector and sub-divisional magistrate. The sub-divisions are further divided into tahasils. The tahasils are headed by tahasildar. Odisha has 58 sub-divisions, 317 tahasils and 314 blocks.[99] Blocks consists of Panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities.

The capital of the state is Bhubaneswar and the largest city is Cuttack, which also functions as the deputy capital of the state . The other major cities are, Rourkela, Berhampur and Sambalpur. Municipal Corporations in Odisha include Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, Berhampur, Puri, Sambalpur and Rourkela.

Other municipalities of Odisha include Angul, Asika, Balangir, Balasore, Barbil, Bargarh, Baripada, Basudevpur, Belpahar, Bhadrak, Bhanjanagar, Bhawanipatna, Biramitrapur, Boudh, Brajarajnagar, Byasanagar, Chhatrapur, Deogarh, Dhamra,Dhenkanal, Gopalpur, Gunupur, Hinjilicut, Jagatsinghpur, Jajpur, Jeypore, Jharsuguda, Joda, Kendrapara, Kendujhar, Khordha, Konark, Koraput, Malkangiri, Nabarangpur, Nayagarh, Nuapada, Paradeep, Paralakhemundi, Phulbani, Rajgangpur, Rayagada, Sonepur, Sundargarh, Talcher, Titilagarh, Karanjia, Chatrapur, Asika, Kantabanji, Nimapada, Baudhgarh, and Umerkote.

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Odisha
As of the 2011 Census
Rank Name District Pop.
1 Cuttack Cuttack 921,321
2 Bhubaneswar Khordha 881,988
3 Rourkela Sundargarh 552,970
4 Brahmapur Ganjam 355,823
5 Sambalpur Sambalpur 270,331
6 Puri Puri 201,026
7 Balasore Balasore 144,373
8 Bhadrak Bhadrak 121,338
9 Baripada Mayurbhanj 116,874
10 Balangir Balangir 98,238

Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs in rural areas.

Economy

[edit]
Main article: Economy of Odisha

Macro-economic trend

[edit]

Odisha is experiencing a rapid economic growth post-Covid. The impressive growth in gross domestic product of the state has been reported by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. Odisha's growth rate is above the national average.[102] The central Government's Urban Development Ministry has recently announced the names of 20 cities selected to be developed as smart cities. The state capital Bhubaneswar is the first city in the list of smart Cities released in January 2016, a pet project of the Indian Government. The announcement also marked with sanction of Rs 508.02 billion over the five years for development.[103]

Industrial development

[edit]
One of the iron ore mines in Keonjhar district
Rourkela Steel Plant

Odisha has abundant natural resources and a large coastline. Odisha has emerged as the most preferred destination for overseas investors with investment proposals.[104] It contains a fifth of India's coal, a quarter of its iron ore, a third of its bauxite reserves and most of the chromite.

Rourkela Steel Plant[105] was the first integrated steel plant in the public sector in India, built with collaboration of Germany.

Arcelor-Mittal has also announced plans to invest in another mega steel project amounting to $10 billion. Russian major Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Company (MMK) plans to set up a 10 MT steel plant in Odisha, too. Nippon Steel Corporation has recently announced to set up their own plants, one of which will be the world's largest and most advanced steel plant in Odisha, with a production capacity of 30 MT annually.[106] Bandhabahal is a major area of open cast coal mines in Odisha. The state is attracting an unprecedented amount of investment in aluminium, coal-based power plants, petrochemicals, and information technology as well. In power generation, Reliance Power (Anil Ambani Group) is putting up the world's largest power plant with an investment of US$13 billion at Hirma in Jharsuguda district.[107]

In 2009 Odisha was the second top domestic investment destination with Gujarat first and Andhra Pradesh in third place according to an analysis of ASSOCHAM Investment Meter (AIM) study on corporate investments. Odisha's share was 12.6 per cent in total investment in the country. It received an investment proposal worth ₹2.01 trillion (equivalent to ₹4.5 trillion or US$53 billion in 2023) in 2010. Steel and power were among the sectors which attracted maximum investments in the state.[108]

The recently concluded Make in Odisha Conclave 2022 saw the state generate investment proposals worth ₹10.5 trillion with an employment potential for 10,37,701 people. Out of the total investment proposals received, the metals, ancillary and downstream sectors fetched ₹5.50 lakhs crore (trillion), power, green energy, and renewable energy sector fetched ₹2.38 trillion, and chemicals-petrochemicals and logistics-infrastructure sector attracted ₹76,000 crores and ₹1.20 trillion, respectively. Odisha has the potential to become a trillion-dollar economy by 2030.

Transportation

[edit]

Odisha has a network of roads, railways, airports and seaports. Bhubaneswar is well connected by air, rail and road with the rest of India. Some highways are getting expanded to four lanes.[109][110] Odisha Government Plans Mega Metro Rail Project to Connect Puri and Bhubaneswar [111] The metro rail proposal was given to connect trains between Puri- Bhubaneswar – Cuttack.[112] The Odisha government has planned a new Expressway that will connect Biju Patnaik International Airport at Bhubaneswar with the proposed Shri Jagannath International Airport at Puri.[113]

Air

[edit]
Main article: List of airports in Odisha
Biju Patnaik International Airport, Bhubaneswar

Odisha has a total of three operational airports, 16 airstrips and 16 helipads.[114][115][116] The airport at Jharsuguda was upgraded to a full-fledged domestic airport in May 2018. Rourkela Airport became operational in December 2022.The Dhamra Port Company Limited plans to build Dhamra Airport 20 km from Dhamra Port.[117]

Seaports

[edit]
Main page: Category:Ports and harbours of Odisha
Gopalpur Port
East Coast Railway headquarters, Bhubaneswar
Dhamra Port

Odisha has a coastline of 485 kilometres (301 mi). It has one major port at Paradip and few minor ports. some of them are:[118][119]

Railways

[edit]

Major cities of Odisha are well connected to all the major cities of India by direct daily trains and weekly trains. Most of the railway network in Odisha lies under the jurisdiction of the East Coast Railway (ECoR) with headquarters at Bhubaneswar and some parts under South Eastern Railway and South East Central Railway.

Demographics

[edit]
Historical population
YearPop.±%
190110,302,917—    
191111,378,875+10.4%
192111,158,586−1.9%
193112,491,056+11.9%
194113,767,988+10.2%
195114,645,946+6.4%
196117,548,846+19.8%
197121,944,615+25.0%
198126,370,271+20.2%
199131,659,736+20.1%
200136,804,660+16.3%
201141,974,218+14.0%
Source: Census of India[120]

Population

[edit]
Tribal people of Koraput, Odisha

According to the 2011 Census of India, Odisha accounted for approximately 3% of India's total population. The state had a population of 41,974,218, with 21,212,136 males (50.54%) and 20,762,082 females (49.46%), resulting in a sex ratio of 978 females per 1,000 males. This marked a growth rate of 13.97% during the 2001-2011 period, a decline from 16.25% in the previous decade (1991-2001). The population density stood at 269 people per square kilometre, with Ganjam district having the highest population among all districts in Odisha. In contrast, Debagarh district has the lowest population. The population in the age group of 0–6 years comprised 12% of the total population, with a child sex ratio of 934 females for every 1,000 males in this age group. Additionally, Scheduled Castes (SC) constituted a population of 7.2 million, making up 16.5% of the total population, while Scheduled Tribes (ST) accounted for 9.6 million, representing 22.1% of the population.[4]

Literacy and Socioeconomic Indicators

[edit]

According to the 2011 Census, Odisha's overall literacy rate is 72.87%. Male literacy stands at 81.59%, while female literacy is recorded at 64.01%. Odisha's literacy rate is slightly below the national average of 74.04%. Literacy rates vary within the state, with Khordha district having the highest literacy rate at 86.88%, while Nabarangpur has the lowest at 46.43%. In rural areas, the average literacy rate is 70.22%, compared to 85.57% in urban areas. Among the Scheduled Tribe population, the literacy rate is 52.24%.

In terms of poverty, Odisha had a poverty rate of 57.15% in 2004–2005, nearly double the national average of 26.10% at the time. However, since 2005, the state has made significant progress, reducing the poverty rate by 24.6 percentage points, with the current estimate at 32.6%.[121][122]

Health and Vital Statistics

[edit]

Data from 1996–2001 indicated that the state’s life expectancy was 61.64 years, slightly above the national average. Odisha also records a birth rate of 23.2 per 1,000 people annually, a death rate of 9.1 per 1,000, an infant mortality rate of 65 per 1,000 live births.[123] In 2011-2013, Odisha recorded a maternal mortality ratio (MMR) of 222 per 100,000 live births, according to a report by NITI Aayog. As of 2018, Odisha’s Human Development Index (HDI) stands at 0.606.[123] The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in Odisha declined from 2.1 in 2015-16 to 1.8 in 2020-21, paralleling the national trend, which saw a decrease from 2.2 to 2.0 during the same period.[124]

With a cumulative score of 67.8, Odisha tops the ranking in fiscal health index 2025.[125]

Religion

[edit]
See also: Hinduism in Odisha, Christianity in Odisha, and Odia Muslims
Religion in Odisha (2011)[126]
  1. Hindu (93.6%)
  2. Christian (2.77%)
  3. Muslim (2.17%)
  4. Other religion (1.14%)
  5. Sikh (0.05%)
  6. Buddhist (0.03%)
  7. Jain (0.02%)
  8. No religion (0.18%)
Gita Govinda

Based on the 2011 Census, Odisha has a predominantly Hindu population, with 93.63% adhering to Hinduism. The state is home to several prominent Hindu pilgrimage sites, including Jagannath Puri, known for the Jagannath Temple, and the Lingaraj Temple in Bhubaneswar, which attract devotees from across India and beyond. Christianity is the second-largest religion at 2.77%, followed by Islam at 2.17%. Smaller communities include Sikhs (0.05%), Jains (0.02%), and Buddhists (0.03%). Additionally, 1.14% of the population practices other religions, with Sarna being one of the prominent indigenous faiths,[127] particularly among tribal communities. A small segment, 0.18%, did not state their religious affiliation.[126]

Decadal variations among religious groups

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Religious composition of Odisha
Religion 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Population % Population % Population % Population % Population % Population % Population %
Hinduism 14,368,411 98.11 17,123,194 97.57 21,121,056 96.25 25,161,725 95.42 29,971,257 94.67 34,726,129 94.35 39,300,341 93.63
Islam 176,338 1.20 215,319 1.23 326,507 1.49 422,266 1.60 577,775 1.82 761,985 2.07 911,670 2.17
Christianity 141,934 0.97 201,017 1.15 378,888 1.73 480,426 1.82 666,220 2.10 897,861 2.44 1,161,708 2.77
Sikhism 4,163 0.03 9,316 0.05 10,204 0.04 14,270 0.05 17,296 0.05 17,492 0.05 21,991 0.05
Jainism 1,248 0.01 6,521 0.03 6,642 0.03 6,302 0.02 9,154 0.02 9,420 0.02
Buddhism 969 0.01 8,462 0.04 8,028 0.03 9,153 0.03 9,863 0.03 13,852 0.03
Other Religions and Persuasions 2,883 0.02 91,859 0.42 273,596 1.04 397,798 1.26 361,981 0.98 478,317 1.14
Not Stated — — 1,118 0.01 3,318 0.01 13,935 0.04 20,195 0.05 76,919 0.18
Total 14,645,946 100 17,548,846 100 21,944,615 100 26,370,271 100 31,659,736 100 36,804,660 100 41,974,218 100
Source: Census of India[128][129][130][131][132][133]

Languages

[edit]
Main article: Odia language
Bilingual signboard in English and Odia
Languages of Odisha (2011)[134]
  1. Odia (82.7%)
  2. Kui (2.24%)
  3. Santali (2.06%)
  4. Urdu (1.60%)
  5. Telugu (1.59%)
  6. Hindi (1.23%)
  7. Bengali (1.20%)
  8. Mundari (1.09%)
  9. Others (6.29%)
Linguistic maps of Odisha

Odia is the official language of Odisha[135] and is spoken by 82.70% of the population according to the 2011 census of India.[134] It is also one of the classical languages of India. English is the official language of correspondence between state and the union of India. Spoken Odia is not homogeneous as one can find different dialects spoken across the state. Some of the major dialects found inside the state are Sambalpuri, Cuttacki,Sundargarhi, Baleswari, Ganjami, Desiya, Kalahandia and Phulbani. The standard language is based on the Cuttacki dialect. In addition to Odia, significant populations of people speaking other major Indian languages like Hindi, Telugu, Urdu and Bengali are also found in the state, mainly in cities.[136]

The different tribal (Adivasi) communities who mostly reside in western and southern Odisha have their own languages belonging to Munda and Dravidian family of languages. Some of these major tribal languages are Santali, Kui, Mundari and Ho. Due to increasing contact with outsiders, migration and socioeconomic reasons many of these indigenous languages are slowly getting extinct or are on the verge of getting extinct.[137]

The Odisha Sahitya Academy Award was established in 1957 to actively develop Odia language and literature. The Odisha government launched a portal in 2018 to promote Odia language and literature.[138]

Education

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Main article: Education in Odisha
Utkal University main gate

Entry to various institutes of higher education especially into engineering degrees is through a centralised Odisha Joint Entrance Examination, conducted by the Biju Patnaik University of Technology (BPUT), Rourkela, since 2003, where seats are provided according to order of merit.[139] Few of the engineering institutes enroll students by through Joint Entrance Examination. For medical courses, there is a corresponding National Eligibility Cum Entrance Test.

Culture

[edit]
Main article: Culture of Odisha

Odisha is home to several Hindu figures. Sant Bhima Bhoi was a leader of the Mahima sect. Sarala Das, a Hindu Khandayat, was the translator of the epic Mahabharata into Odia. Chaitanya Das was a Buddhistic-Vaishnava and writer of the Nirguna Mahatmya. Jayadeva was the author of the Gita Govinda.

The Odisha Temple Authorisation Act of 1948 empowered the government of Odisha to open temples for all Hindus, including Dalits.[140]

Perhaps the oldest scripture of Odisha is the Madala Panji from the Puri Temple believed from 1042 AD. Famous Hindu Odia scripture includes the 16th-century Bhagabata of Jagannatha Dasa.[141] In the modern times Madhusudan Rao was a major Odia writer, who was a Brahmo Samajist and shaped modern Odia literature at the start of the 20th century.[142]

Mayurbhanj Chhau

Cuisine

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Main article: Cuisine of Odisha

Odisha has a culinary tradition spanning centuries. The kitchen of the Shri Jagannath Temple, Puri is reputed to be the largest in the world, with 1,000 chefs, working around 752 wood-burning clay hearths called chulas, to feed over 10,000 people each day.[143][144]

The syrupy dessert Pahala rasagola made in Odisha is known throughout the world.[145] Chhenapoda is another major Odisha sweet cuisine, which originated in Nayagarh.[146] Dalma (a mix of dal and selected vegetables) is widely known cuisine, better served with ghee.[citation needed]

Rasagola, Odisha's special culinary delight made from cottage cheese, which has received GI tag in Geographical Indication Registry.

The "Odisha Rasagola" was awarded a GI tag 29 July 2019 after a long battle about the origin of the famous sweet with West Bengal.[147]

This decision involved a broader interpretation of the law established under the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999. Section 2(e) of the Act stipulates that a geographical indication can be provided to a product if its quality, characteristics, or reputation are attributable to its geographical origin and are unique. The uniqueness of Odisha’s Rasagola lies in its color, texture, and taste, distinguishing it from the West Bengal variant. Historical references in Odisha’s texts support the geographical origin of the dish.[148]

Dance

[edit]
Main article: Odissi
"Odissi" A scene from the abhinaya 'Tolagi Gopa Danda' choreographed by Guru Kelucharan Mahapatra. The dance was performed under the guidance of Guru Kelucharan Mahapatra.
Mahari Dance, gave birth to the modern classical dance forms of Odissi
Gotipua Dance
Ghumura folk dance
Dhemsa Dance

Odissi dance and music are classical art forms. Odissi is the oldest surviving dance form in India on the basis of archaeological evidence.[149] Odissi has a long, unbroken tradition of 2,000 years, and finds mention in the Natyashastra of Bharatamuni, possibly written c. 200 BC. However, the dance form nearly became extinct during the British period, only to be revived after India's independence by a few gurus.

The variety of dances includes Ghumura dance, Chhau dance, Jhumair, Mahari dance, Dalkhai, Dhemsa and Gotipua.

Odissi is not only a dance form but also a spiritual expression deeply rooted in Odisha’s temple traditions. Characterized by graceful movements, intricate footwork, and sculpturesque poses, it draws inspiration from the carvings of the Konark Sun Temple and other ancient shrines of the region. The dance is traditionally performed as an act of devotion to Lord Jagannath and often depicts stories from Hindu epics such as the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Geeta Govinda. The unique tribhangi posture, which divides the body into three bends (head, torso, and hips), and the fluid chauka stance, give Odissi its distinctive identity among classical dances of India.

Over centuries, Odissi has evolved from being a temple ritual to a respected performing art practiced worldwide. It blends lyrical music with expressive gestures (mudras) that communicate emotions and narratives with precision. Gurus like Kelucharan Mohapatra, Pankaj Charan Das, and others played a pivotal role in reviving and popularizing the form in the 20th century, ensuring its survival and global recognition. Today, Odissi is celebrated on prestigious stages across the world, symbolizing Odisha’s cultural heritage and artistic excellence.

The traditional performance of Odissi usually begins with Mangalacharan, an invocation to the deities, followed by Batu Nritya that highlights pure dance techniques. Pallavi showcases the dancer’s mastery through elaborate rhythmic patterns, while Abhinaya brings mythological stories to life through expressive storytelling. The recital often concludes with Moksha, symbolizing spiritual liberation, where the dancer blends technical skill with a deep sense of devotion. This structured presentation makes Odissi both aesthetically rich and spiritually profound.

Costumes and music also play an important role in Odissi. Dancers typically wear brightly colored saris made of Sambalpuri or Bomkai silk, adorned with silver jewelry crafted in Odisha’s traditional style. The music is based on Odissi classical ragas and talas, blending elements of both Hindustani and Carnatic traditions, and is performed with instruments like the mardala (a traditional percussion instrument), flute, sitar, and violin. Together, the visual elegance and the melodic accompaniment create an atmosphere that connects performers and audiences to the deep cultural and devotional roots of Odisha.

Sports

[edit]
Main article: Sports in Odisha
Kalinga Stadium in Bhubaneswar
Barabati Stadium in Cuttack

The state of Odisha has hosted several international sporting events, including the 2018 Men's Hockey World Cup, 2022 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup and 2023 Men's Hockey World Cup.

Sports stadiums in Odisha include:

  1. Kalinga Stadium
  2. Barabati Stadium
  3. Jawaharlal Nehru Indoor Stadium
  4. East Coast Railway Stadium
  5. Biju Patnaik Hockey Stadium
  6. KIIT Stadium
  7. Veer Surendra Sai Stadium
  8. Birsa Munda International Hockey Stadium[150]

There are some High Performance Centres in the state as well which have been set up at Kalinga Stadium for the development of respective sports in Odisha. Some of the HPCs are as follows:

Tourism

[edit]
Main article: Tourism in Odisha

The Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar has a 150-foot (46 m) high deula while the Jagannath Temple, Puri is about 200 feet (61 m) high and dominates the skyline. Only a portion of the Konark Sun Temple at Konark in Puri district, the largest of the temples of the "Holy Golden Triangle" exists today, and it is still staggering in size. It stands out as a masterpiece in Odisha architecture. Sarala Temple, regarded as one of the most spiritually elevated expressions of Shaktism is in Jagatsinghpur district. It is also one of the holiest places in Odisha and a major tourist attraction. Maa Tarini Temple situated in Kendujhar district is also a famous pilgrimage destination. Every day thousands of coconuts are given to Maa Tarini by devotees for fulfilling their wishes.[155]

Odisha's varying topography – from the wooded Eastern Ghats to the fertile river basin – has proven ideal for evolution of compact and unique ecosystems. This creates treasure troves of flora and fauna that are inviting to many migratory species of birds and reptiles. Bhitarkanika National Park in Kendrapada district is famous for its second largest mangrove ecosystem. The bird sanctuary in Chilika Lake (Asia's largest brackish water lake). The tiger reserve and waterfalls in Simlipal National Park, Mayurbhanj district are integral parts of eco-tourism in Odisha, arranged by Odisha Tourism.[156]

Daringbadi is a hill station in the Kandhamal district. It is known as "Kashmir of Odisha", for its climatic similarity. Chandipur, in Baleswar district is a calm and serene site, is mostly unexplored by tourists. The unique speciality of this beach is the ebb tides that recede up to 4 km and tend to disappear rhythmically.

In the western part of Odisha, Hirakud Dam in Sambalpur district is the longest earthen dam in the World. It also forms the biggest artificial lake in Asia. The Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary is situated near Hirakud Dam. Samaleswari Temple is a Hindu temple in Sambalpur city, dedicated to the goddess known as 'Samaleswari', the presiding deity of Sambalpur, is a strong religious force in western part of Odisha and Chhattisgarh state. The Leaning Temple of Huma is located near Sambalpur. The temple is dedicated to the Hindu god Lord Bimaleshwar. Sri Sri Harishankar Devasthana, is a temple on the slopes of Gandhamardhan hills, Balangir district. It is popular for its scenes of nature and connection to two Hindu lords, Vishnu and Shiva. On the opposite side of the Gandhamardhan hills is the temple of Sri Nrusinghanath, is situated at the foothills of Gandhamardhan Hill near Paikmal, Bargarh district.

In the southern part of Odisha, The Taratarini Temple on the Kumari hills at the bank of the Rushikulya River near Berhampur city in Ganjam district. Here worshiped as the Breast Shrine (Sthana Peetha) and manifestations of Adi Shakti. The Tara Tarini Shakti Peetha is one of the oldest pilgrimage centers of the Mother Goddess and is one of four major ancient Tantra Peetha and Shakti Peethas in India. Deomali is a mountain peak of the Eastern Ghats. It is located in Koraput district. This peak with an elevation of about 1,672 m, is the highest peak in Odisha.

The share of foreign tourists' arrival in the state is below one per cent of total foreign tourist arrivals at all India level.[157]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
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Odisha

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Odisha (Hindi: ओड़िशा; Odia: ଓଡ଼ିଶା) is a state in eastern India, located along the Bay of Bengal coastline between latitudes 17.49°N and 22.34°N and longitudes 81.27°E and 87.29°E, encompassing an area of 155,707 square kilometers that accounts for approximately 4.87% of India's total land area. With a projected population of 46,276,000 as of 2023, it ranks as the eleventh-most populous state, featuring a diverse demographic including significant Scheduled Tribe populations and a literacy rate shaped by rural-urban divides. Its capital and largest urban center is Bhubaneswar, a planned city developed post-independence to replace the congested historic port of Cuttack, serving as the administrative hub for its 30 districts. Historically known as Kalinga and Utkala, Odisha derives its modern name from the Odia language and ethnic Odra tribes, with the state's nomenclature officially amended from Orissa to Odisha in 2011 to better reflect linguistic roots. The region is defined by its ancient architectural legacy, including UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as the 13th-century Konark Sun Temple—modeled as a colossal chariot dedicated to Surya—and the Jagannath Temple in Puri, center of the Rath Yatra procession drawing millions annually, alongside the 11th-century Lingaraj Temple complex in Bhubaneswar exemplifying Kalinga-style deul architecture with towering shikharas. Economically, Odisha stands as a mineral powerhouse, endowed with vast reserves of iron ore, bauxite, coal, and chromite that fuel steel, aluminum, and power industries, underpinning a gross state domestic product that grew 8.5% in fiscal year 2023-24 amid national challenges. Geographically, the state spans coastal plains, fertile deltas of rivers like the Mahanadi, undulating plateaus, and the Eastern Ghats' forested hills culminating in Deomali Peak at 1,672 meters, supporting biodiversity hotspots including Bhitarkanika National Park's saltwater crocodiles and mangroves, Nandankanan Zoological Park's white tigers, and Chilika Lake's Irrawaddy dolphins and migratory birds as Asia's largest brackish lagoon. Agriculture, employing over half the workforce, centers on rice paddy cultivation in rain-fed alluvial soils, supplemented by fisheries and horticulture, though prone to cyclones and floods due to its 480-kilometer shoreline exposure. Odisha's development trajectory emphasizes industrial corridors and ports like Paradip, yet grapples with uneven human development indices, high poverty persistence in tribal interiors, and environmental strains from mining, prioritizing empirical resource extraction over unsubstantiated sustainability narratives often amplified in biased academic discourse.

Etymology and Naming

Origin of the Name

The name Odisha traces its etymological roots to the ancient tribal designation Odra, referring to the Odra people who inhabited the central coastal and northern regions of the present-day state during prehistoric and early historic periods. Historical records indicate that the term evolved from Odra Desha (land of the Odras), a regional identifier mentioned in ancient Sanskrit and Prakrit texts, which gradually transformed into forms like Uddisa or Udisa over centuries. This tribal ethnonym supplanted earlier prominent designations such as Kalinga—famous for the third-century BCE Kalinga War—or Utkala, which denoted a core cultural and geographical subunit, to encompass the broader territory by the early medieval era. Ancient inscriptions provide early attestations of related terms, including the Prakrit Odda Visaya (or Udra Bibhasha), appearing in South Indian records like the eleventh-century Tirumalai inscription of Chola emperor Rajendra I, which references the Odra linguistic and territorial domain. Epigraphic evidence from the region, such as Ashokan edicts from the third century BCE, allude to the Odras as a distinct group alongside neighboring tribes like the Kalingas, underscoring their role in shaping local identity. The Odra kingdom itself, centered in northern Odisha, is described in Puranic literature as a semi-independent polity neighboring the Vangas and other eastern Indian groups, with its name persisting as the foundational element for the modern state's nomenclature. During British colonial administration in the nineteenth century, the anglicized form Orissa emerged from phonetic adaptations of Odisha, reflecting European transliteration conventions applied to administrative divisions formed in 1936. This variant endured until 2011, when the Indian Parliament passed the Orissa (Alteration of Name) Bill on November 24, approving the reversion to Odisha to align with Odia phonetic and orthographic norms, thereby restoring proximity to the ancient Odra derivation. The shift emphasized indigenous linguistic heritage over colonial impositions, though the core etymology remained anchored in the prehistoric Odra tribal legacy rather than later political constructs.

History

Ancient and Classical Periods

Archaeological evidence indicates human habitation in the region of present-day Odisha dating back to prehistoric times, with rock art sites distributed across 23 districts. Notable examples include the Vikramkhol cave in Jharsuguda district, featuring pictographic inscriptions estimated between 3000 BCE and 1000 BCE, suggesting early symbolic communication or proto-writing. Other shelters like Yogimatha in Nuapada exhibit paintings from the Mesolithic period, depicting hunting scenes and animal motifs. These artifacts point to a hunter-gatherer society transitioning to settled communities, though precise dating relies on stylistic comparisons due to limited radiocarbon data. The ancient kingdom of Kalinga emerged as a distinct political entity by the 6th century BCE, encompassing much of coastal Odisha and parts of neighboring regions. It maintained independence despite incursions, such as the conquest by Mahapadma Nanda of the Nanda dynasty in the 4th century BCE, whose rule proved ephemeral. Kalinga prospered through maritime trade via ports along its 600 km coastline, facilitating exchanges with Southeast Asia and the Mediterranean. The Kalinga War in 261 BCE marked a pivotal event, when Mauryan emperor Ashoka invaded the independent kingdom, resulting in approximately 100,000 deaths and 150,000 deportations amid fierce resistance. Ashoka's subsequent remorse, documented in his edicts at Dhauli and Jaugada, led to his embrace of Buddhism and policies of dhamma, though Mauryan control waned after his death around 232 BCE, allowing local resurgence. Post-Mauryan Kalinga saw the rise of the Mahameghavahana dynasty (c. 1st century BCE – early 4th century CE), with King Kharavela (c. 150–160 BCE) as its most prominent ruler, as detailed in the Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri caves. A Jain adherent, Kharavela repelled Satavahana incursions, raided Magadha to retrieve Jaina relics, and extended influence southward to the Krishna River while promoting irrigation and cultural patronage. His 17-line Prakrit inscription chronicles thirteen years of military and administrative achievements, underscoring Kalinga's revival as a regional power fostering Jainism and trade. In the classical period (c. 1st–4th centuries CE), Odisha experienced influences from the Satavahanas, Kushanas, and later Gupta expansions, with local dynasties like the Murundas maintaining autonomy in inland areas. Buddhist and Jaina monastic centers proliferated, evidenced by sites like Ratnagiri, reflecting syncretic religious practices amid economic growth from agriculture and overseas commerce. Gupta suzerainty under Samudragupta (c. 335–375 CE) imposed nominal tribute on Kalinga principalities, integrating the region into broader Indian imperial networks without direct administration.

Medieval Dynasties and Empires

The medieval era in Odisha, from the 8th to the 16th century, featured successive dynasties that unified territories, advanced temple architecture, and shifted religious patronage toward Hinduism while fostering regional identity. The Bhaumakara dynasty initiated this phase, establishing rule over coastal Odisha's Utkala region around 736 CE under founder Kshemankara, a migrant from Kamarupa. This lineage, notable for seven female rulers including Tribhuvana Mahadevi I (c. 713–779 CE) and her successors, blended Shaivite and Buddhist support, erecting sites like the Viraja Temple at Jajpur and Buddhist viharas. Their administration emphasized land grants and feudal structures, but internal fragmentation led to decline by the mid-10th century, supplanted by Bhanja and Somavamsi incursions. Succeeding in the mid-9th century, the Somavamsi (or Panduvamsi) dynasty expanded from South Kosala into core Odishan territories, achieving unification under Yayati Kesari I (c. 1025–1055 CE), who conquered Kalinga and integrated Utkala, Dakshina Kosala, and Kangoda. Claiming lunar descent, they promoted Shaivism and Vaishnavism, constructing early Kalinga-style temples such as those at Mukhalingam and contributing to the Bhumara and Ranipur Jharial complexes. Their rule, centered at Yayatinagara (modern Jajpur), ended around 1110 CE amid Chola and Ganga pressures, marking a cultural pivot from Buddhism. The Eastern Ganga dynasty consolidated power from 1038 CE under Vajrahasta Deva V, but flourished under Anantavarman Chodaganga (1078–1147 CE), who rebuilt the Jagannath Temple at Puri and extended influence to the Godavari basin. Ruling from Vartulagrama (near Cuttack), they defended against Chola invasions, with Narasimhadeva I (1238–1264 CE) repelling Muslim forces at Kandav and commissioning the Konark Sun Temple in 1250 CE as a chariot-shaped architectural marvel symbolizing Surya worship. The dynasty's 400-year span emphasized irrigation via tanks and canals, Odia language evolution, and maritime trade, collapsing in 1434–1435 CE due to internal strife. The Suryavamsi Gajapatis emerged in 1434 CE when Kapilendra Deva (r. 1434–1467 CE), a military commander, overthrew Ganga remnants, forging an empire spanning the Ganges delta to the Tungabhadra by 1450 CE through conquests against Bengal Sultanate and Vijayanagara. Centered at Cuttack's Barabati Fort, rulers like Purushottama Deva (r. 1467–1497 CE) fortified Vaishnavism, patronizing Odia poets such as Sarala Das and expanding Jagannath rituals. Prataparudra Deva (r. 1497–1540 CE) faced Krisha Raya's incursions but maintained cultural hegemony until Afghan Karani subjugation in 1541 CE, fragmenting the realm.

Colonial Period and Independence Movement

The British East India Company annexed Odisha following victories in the Second Anglo-Maratha War, capturing Balasore on September 22, 1803, and Cuttack shortly thereafter, with the Deogaon Treaty formalizing the cession of these territories from the Maratha Bhonsle rulers on December 17, 1803. Puri and other coastal areas fell under British control by early 1804, integrating the region into the Bengal Presidency amid administrative reforms that imposed high land revenue demands and abolished traditional privileges of local militias. This period saw economic exploitation through revenue farming and salt monopolies, exacerbating peasant hardships in a agrarian society previously under lighter Maratha taxation. Early resistance materialized in the Paika Rebellion of 1817, led by Bakshi Jagabandhu, commander of the paika militia from Khurda, who mobilized around 400 armed fighters and tribal allies against British policies that confiscated estates, raised rents by up to 50 percent, and restricted paika service roles. The uprising began on March 27, 1817, with attacks on police stations and treasury outposts near Khurda, briefly recapturing symbols of authority before British reinforcements suppressed it by May, resulting in Jagabandhu's surrender in 1825 after prolonged guerrilla activity. Subsequent tribal revolts, such as the Kondh-led Ghumsar rebellion in 1835 under Dora Bisoyee, targeted similar revenue impositions and cultural intrusions, reflecting localized pushback against centralized colonial governance rather than coordinated anti-imperial ideology. Administrative restructuring occurred in 1912 when Odisha was separated from Bengal to form the Bihar and Orissa Province under Lieutenant Governor Sir Charles Stuart Bayley, addressing Odia linguistic and cultural distinctiveness amid growing regional advocacy. The push for a dedicated Orissa Province intensified through organizations like Utkal Sammilani, founded in 1903 by Madhusudan Das, which petitioned for Odia-majority administrative unity based on ethnolinguistic boundaries, culminating in the Government of India Act 1935 that established Orissa Province on April 1, 1936, with Sir John Austen Hubback as its first governor, encompassing core Odia-speaking districts but excluding some peripheral areas merged later. Odisha's engagement with the broader Indian independence movement aligned with Congress-led campaigns, including the Non-Cooperation Movement from 1920–1922, where local leaders like Gopabandhu Das organized boycotts of British goods and institutions, establishing parallel governance structures in rural areas. The Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930 saw widespread salt satyagraha along Odisha's coasts, with arrests exceeding 1,000 participants, while the Quit India Movement in 1942 provoked intense underground sabotage, including rail disruptions and attacks on government offices, suppressed harshly with over 20,000 detentions. These efforts, rooted in economic grievances and regional identity preservation, contributed to Odisha's integration into independent India without unique separatist demands, though Odia nationalism prioritized linguistic reorganization over radical anti-colonial violence.

Post-Independence Development and State Formation

Following India's independence on 15 August 1947, the province of Orissa integrated 26 princely states known as the Gadajats, which covered significant portions of the region's territory. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, as Minister of States, played a pivotal role through diplomatic negotiations, leading 25 of these states to sign merger agreements on 15 December 1947, with the remaining integrated by early 1948. This unification, facilitated by the Odisha Military Force's administrative takeovers in resistant areas like Nilagiri on 14 November 1947, created a cohesive administrative framework essential for post-colonial governance. Orissa achieved full statehood under the Constitution of India on 26 January 1950, building on its prior status as a separate province established by the British on 1 April 1936. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 further refined its boundaries along linguistic lines, incorporating Odia-speaking areas while excluding non-Odia regions like Saraikela and Kharsawan, which were transferred to Bihar. This linguistic demarcation, one of the earliest in independent India, stabilized the state's identity and administrative efficiency, though it left Odisha with a predominantly agrarian economy lacking major industries beyond rudimentary operations like sawmills as of 1950. Post-integration, development emphasized infrastructure to address chronic issues like floods and food insecurity. The Hirakud Dam on the Mahanadi River, with construction commencing in 1948 after foundation laying in 1946, was completed by 1957, forming Asia's longest earthen dam and enabling irrigation for over 75,000 square kilometers alongside hydroelectric power generation. Subsequent initiatives under the Five-Year Plans included the establishment of the Rourkela Steel Plant in 1959 as India's first public-sector integrated steel facility, fostering industrial growth in the mineral-rich hinterlands. These projects marked a shift from subsistence agriculture toward resource-based industrialization, though challenges like displacement and uneven benefits persisted. In 2011, the state was officially renamed Odisha through the Orissa (Alteration of Name) Act, with Parliament approving the change on 24 March 2011 to better reflect the Odia language's phonetic pronunciation, replacing "Orissa" and "Oriya" with "Odisha" and "Odia." This linguistic adjustment, rooted in long-standing regional advocacy, symbolized cultural affirmation without altering administrative structures. By the 21st century, these foundational efforts had laid groundwork for sustained economic expansion, evidenced by growth in mining, ports, and manufacturing sectors.

Geography

Location and Topography


Odisha occupies a position on the eastern seaboard of the Indian peninsula, extending from 17°49' N to 22°34' N latitude and 81°27' E to 87°29' E longitude. The state covers an area of 155,707 square kilometers, representing approximately 4.74% of India's total land area. It is bordered by West Bengal to the northeast, Jharkhand to the north, Chhattisgarh to the west and northwest, Andhra Pradesh to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the east, with a coastline stretching about 450 kilometers. Physiographically, Odisha is divided into five major regions: coastal plains, middle mountainous terrain, rolling uplands, river valleys, and subdued plateaus. The eastern coastal plains, narrow in the north and widening southward, feature fertile deltas formed by major rivers and support intensive agriculture. The central region comprises undulating plateaus and hills of the Eastern Ghats, while the western highlands include rugged terrains with elevations rising toward the interior. The state's highest peak, Deomali in the Koraput district, reaches an elevation of 1,675 meters. Odisha's topography is dominated by a network of rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal, with 11 major basins covering much of the state's 151,976 square kilometers of catchment area. The Mahanadi, the principal river and sixth longest in India, originates in the Amarkantak hills and forms a vast delta in the coastal zone; it is harnessed by the Hirakud Dam for irrigation and power generation. Other significant rivers include the Brahmani, formed by the confluence of the Sankh and Koel rivers near Rourkela, and the Baitarani, both contributing to the fertile eastern lowlands. These fluvial systems, separated by high ridges, shape the state's varied landscape from alluvial plains to dissected uplands.

Climate and Natural Disasters

Odisha experiences a tropical climate marked by high temperatures, elevated humidity, and pronounced seasonal variations driven by the southwest monsoon. Average annual rainfall across the state is approximately 1,500 mm, with 75-80% concentrated between June and September, leading to lush vegetation but also risks of waterlogging in low-lying areas. Temperatures peak during the hot season from March to June, with May recording average highs exceeding 40°C (104°F) in interior regions and coastal areas like Chandbali seeing highs around 35°C (94°F) and lows near 27°C (81°F). Winters from November to February remain mild, with average daytime temperatures of 25-28°C (77-82°F) and minimal frost, though coastal humidity persists year-round. The state's coastal location exposes it to frequent natural disasters, particularly tropical cyclones from the Bay of Bengal, which account for significant loss of life and property due to gale-force winds, storm surges up to 5-6 meters, and torrential rains. The 1999 super cyclone, striking on October 29, devastated coastal districts, causing over 10,000 deaths, affecting 18 million people, and destroying infrastructure worth billions, with wind speeds reaching 260 km/h. Floods from 11 major river systems, including the Mahanadi, Brahmani, and Baitarani, exacerbate cyclone impacts, inundating vast agricultural lands; for instance, the 2022 floods displaced thousands and damaged crops across multiple districts due to heavy monsoon downpours coinciding with river overflows. Droughts affect rain-shadow interiors during deficient monsoon years, while heatwaves in pre-monsoon periods have caused hundreds of deaths, as seen in episodes with temperatures surpassing 45°C in April-May. These events, recurrent since reliable records began in the mid-20th century, highlight Odisha's position among India's most disaster-prone regions, with cyclones and floods responsible for the majority of extreme weather fatalities over the past five decades.

Biodiversity and Natural Resources

Odisha's biodiversity is notable for its extensive forest cover, which spans 52,433.56 square kilometers, or 33.67% of the state's geographical area, according to the India State of Forest Report 2023. The state's forests and tree cover together account for 37.63% of its total area of 155,707 square kilometers, reflecting a recent net increase of 151.89 square kilometers in forest cover. This green expanse supports over 5,174 species of plants and fungi, including 2,800 species of higher plants, 300 species of grasses, and 153 species of orchids. Protected areas such as Simlipal National Park harbor key wildlife, including an estimated 40 tigers as of April 2025, alongside elephants, gaurs, sambars, and diverse bird species. Bhitarkanika National Park, featuring one of India's largest mangrove ecosystems and the second-largest after the Sundarbans, hosts the country's highest population of saltwater crocodiles, numbering 1,826 individuals as recorded in 2025, up from 96 in 1975 due to conservation efforts. Chilika Lake, Asia's largest brackish water lagoon and a Ramsar site, sustains 317 fish species, migratory birds, and endangered Irrawaddy dolphins. Odisha's natural resources are dominated by minerals, with the state contributing 41.9% of India's total mineral production (excluding fuel oil and atomic minerals) in 2022-23. In 2023-24, production included 169.03 million tons of iron ore, 17.54 million tons of bauxite, and significant outputs of coal and chromite, generating a value of ₹63,588 crores, or 44.9% of national mineral output. These reserves, concentrated in districts like Keonjhar and Sundargarh, underpin industries such as steel and aluminum, though extraction poses environmental pressures on adjacent biodiversity hotspots.

Environmental Challenges

Odisha faces significant environmental challenges primarily from recurrent natural disasters and anthropogenic activities. Its 480-kilometer coastline along the Bay of Bengal makes it highly vulnerable to cyclones, with the state recording depressions, cyclonic storms, and severe cyclonic storms from 1890 to 2020, including a notable concentration of landfalls. Between 2018 and 2024, coastal Odisha endured at least eight cyclonic storms, either through direct landfalls or nearby impacts, leading to storm surges, flooding, and disruptions to livelihoods and infrastructure. These events occur in two seasons—pre-monsoon (April–May) and post-monsoon (September–November)—and climate change is intensifying their frequency and intensity by warming ocean surfaces and raising sea levels. Flooding from major rivers like the Mahanadi compounds these risks, causing annual inundation in delta regions and agricultural losses estimated at 40% reduction in some cyclone-affected crops despite mitigation efforts. Mining operations, especially open-cast iron ore extraction in northern districts like Keonjhar and Sundargarh, generate acute pollution. These activities release particulate matter and red dust, elevating air pollution levels that have persisted for decades and contribute to respiratory illnesses among residents. In Keonjhar, mining-related water contamination and dust exposure correlate with premature deaths and health issues such as acute respiratory infections, with local studies linking these to unsafe drinking water and airborne pollutants. Over 38 years, mining has diverted 10,451.39 hectares of forest land in Keonjhar alone, fragmenting habitats and increasing soil erosion and siltation in rivers. Ecosystem degradation from such mining also reduces agricultural sustainability, with reports of soil infertility, wasteland expansion, and restricted access to forests for tribal communities. Deforestation and forest fires further strain Odisha's biodiversity hotspots. The state recorded over 31,000 forest fires during the 2023 season, driven by dry conditions and human activities, which destroy vegetation and release carbon emissions. While overall forest cover increased by 151.89 square kilometers as per the 2023 Forest Survey of India report, localized losses from mining and fires persist, threatening mangroves and wetlands that buffer against cyclones. Climate-induced shifts, including heat waves and erratic monsoons, exacerbate vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue through prolonged humid conditions and flooding, with health impacts including psychological distress and injuries rising in affected areas.

Demographics

Population Dynamics and Projections

As of the 2011 Census of India, Odisha's population stood at 41,974,218, marking a decadal growth rate of 13.97% from 2001 to 2011, down from 15.94% in the preceding decade (1991–2001). This slowdown reflects broader demographic transitions, including a fertility rate that has declined to replacement level (total fertility rate of 2.1 children per woman as of recent estimates), driven by increased contraceptive use and socioeconomic factors such as improved female literacy and access to family planning, though rural-urban disparities persist. Mortality improvements, with infant mortality dropping significantly since the 1990s, have also contributed, yet natural growth rates have fallen to around 6.6 per 1,000 population by 2020. Out-migration, particularly of young males seeking employment in industrial states like Gujarat and Maharashtra, has tempered net population growth, with remittances supporting rural economies but exacerbating labor shortages and gender imbalances in some districts. Urbanization has accelerated modestly, with the urban population share rising from 14.99% in 2001 to 16.68% in 2011, concentrated in areas like Bhubaneswar and Cuttack, amid ongoing rural-to-urban shifts projected to intensify with economic diversification. Population density remains low at 270 persons per square kilometer, below the national average, due to the state's rugged terrain and tribal-dominated interiors. Projections from the Technical Group on Population Estimates (under India's National Commission) estimate Odisha's population at approximately 44.0 million in 2021, rising to around 46.7 million by 2025, with growth rates stabilizing below 1% annually by the 2030s amid sustained fertility decline below 2.0. By 2031, district-level models forecast a total nearing 48–50 million, with aging trends emerging— the elderly (60+) share projected to reach 11.5% by 2021 and 17.1% by 2036—posing challenges for dependency ratios and healthcare, though the state retains a youthful demographic dividend with over 30% under 15 years in recent baselines. These estimates assume continued migration outflows and policy interventions like skill development to harness workforce potential, but vulnerabilities to climate-induced displacement could alter trajectories if unaddressed.
YearPopulation (millions)Decadal Growth Rate (%)
200136.8015.94
201141.9713.97
2021 (proj.)44.00~5.0 (annualized)
2031 (proj.)~48.5<1.0 (annualized)

Linguistic and Ethnic Composition

Odia, an Indo-Aryan language, is the official language of Odisha and the mother tongue of 34,712,170 individuals, comprising 82.7% of the state's total population of 41,974,218 as recorded in the 2011 Census of India. This dominance reflects the historical settlement of Odia-speaking communities across the coastal plains and interior regions, with the language serving as the medium of administration, education, and primary communication. Linguistic diversity arises primarily from indigenous tribal groups, with 163 mother tongues identified in the 2011 Census, including 13 spoken by more than 0.5% of the population. Significant minority languages include Kui (spoken by the Kondha tribe), Santali, and Ho (Austroasiatic languages), alongside Hindi, Telugu, and Bengali in border districts and urban areas like Bhubaneswar, where migration influences bilingualism. The state officially recognizes 22 tribal languages, many of which lack widespread script use and face preservation challenges due to assimilation into Odia-medium schooling. Ethnically, the population is dominated by Odia people of Indo-Aryan origin, who form the non-tribal majority and are concentrated in urban and agricultural heartlands. Scheduled Tribes constitute a substantial minority, numbering 9,590,756 or 22.85% of the population per the 2011 Census, marking Odisha as having India's third-highest tribal proportion after Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. These 62 recognized tribes, including 13 Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), predominantly reside in hilly, forested districts like Mayurbhanj, Rayagada, and Kandhamal, engaging in subsistence farming, shifting cultivation, and forest-based livelihoods. Prominent Scheduled Tribes include the Kondha (Dravidian speakers, largest group with traditional practices like meriah sacrifice historically suppressed under British rule), Santal (Austroasiatic, known for the Sohrai festival and Ol Chiki script), and smaller communities like Juang and Bonda (PVTGs with high isolation and low literacy). Tribal ethnic identities are linguistically diverse, spanning Austroasiatic (e.g., Munda subgroups), Dravidian (e.g., Gondi variants), and minor Indo-Aryan influences, contrasting with the caste-based hierarchies among non-tribal Odias, where Scheduled Castes add another 17.13% or 7,188,463 persons focused on coastal and plain occupations. This composition underscores Odisha's role as a cultural mosaic, with tribal autonomy movements and land rights shaping ethnic dynamics since the 1950s.

Religious Demographics

According to the 2011 Census of India, Hinduism constitutes the dominant religion in Odisha, with 39,300,341 adherents representing 93.63% of the state's total population of 41,974,218. This figure encompasses a wide array of Hindu traditions, prominently including Vaishnavism centered on the worship of Lord Jagannath, as well as Shaivism and Shaktism, reflected in temples like Lingaraj in Bhubaneswar and those dedicated to the goddess in tribal regions.
ReligionPopulationPercentage
Hinduism39,300,34193.63%
Christianity1,161,7082.77%
Islam911,6702.17%
Other religions and persuasions478,3171.14%
Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, and othersMinimal<0.5%
The table above summarizes the religious composition from the 2011 census data. Christians form the second-largest group at 2.77%, with concentrations in tribal-dominated districts such as Kandhamal and Gajapati, where missionary activities have contributed to growth rates exceeding 400% from 1961 to 2011, far outpacing the Hindu increase of 129.52% over the same period. Muslims account for 2.17%, primarily urban dwellers in coastal areas, with their population growth decelerating to 24.64% in the 2001-2011 decade from higher prior rates. The "other religions and persuasions" category, at 1.14%, largely comprises indigenous tribal animist practices among Scheduled Tribes, who form about 22.8% of Odisha's population and often blend these with Hindu elements, though some adhere to distinct faiths like Sarna. Historical trends indicate differential growth, with minority religions expanding faster than Hinduism between 1961 and 2011—Christians at 477.91% and Muslims at 323.40%—attributable to higher fertility rates, migration, and conversions in underserved tribal areas. No official census data post-2011 exists as of 2025, with the 2021 enumeration delayed; however, district-level patterns suggest sustained Christian increases in southern and tribal interiors, prompting concerns over cultural shifts in indigenous communities. Sikh, Buddhist, and Jain populations remain negligible, under 0.5% combined, with Jains showing a 310.46% growth over five decades but from a tiny base.

Socio-Economic Indicators

Odisha's literacy rate, as recorded in the 2011 Census, was 72.87 percent overall, with males at 81.59 percent and females at 64.01 percent, reflecting persistent gender disparities in educational access despite improvements from prior decades. Recent estimates suggest gradual progress, but official decennial census data remains the benchmark, highlighting challenges in rural and tribal areas where school infrastructure and retention lag. The state's Human Development Index (HDI) stands at 0.641, positioning Odisha below the national average and underscoring gaps in health, education, and income metrics despite economic growth in mining and industry. This value incorporates life expectancy around 69 years, mean years of schooling near 5, and gross national income per capita adjusted for purchasing power, revealing uneven distribution favoring coastal districts over southern tribal regions. Multidimensional poverty, measured by NITI Aayog's index encompassing health, education, and living standards, affected 15.68 percent of Odisha's population in 2019-21, a sharp decline from 29.34 percent in 2015-16 and 63.84 percent in 2005-06, driven by targeted interventions in sanitation, electrification, and nutrition. Monetary poverty estimates similarly show reduction to around 11 percent by 2022, though rural-tribal pockets remain vulnerable due to seasonal agriculture and limited non-farm jobs.
IndicatorValueYear/Source
Unemployment Rate (15+ years, usual status)3.1%PLFS 2023-24
Per Capita Net State Domestic Product₹1,82,5482024-25 (advance est.)
Infant Mortality Rate41 per 1,000 live birthsNFHS-5 (2019-21)
Sex Ratio (females per 1,000 males)978Census 2011
Sex Ratio at Birth961SRS 2021-23
Unemployment, per Periodic Labour Force Survey data, averaged 3.1 percent for ages 15 and above in 2023-24, lower than youth rates (around 12 percent for 15-29) but elevated among graduates due to skill mismatches in a mining-agriculture dominant economy. Health indicators include an infant mortality rate of 41 per 1,000 live births from NFHS-5, higher in rural areas, linked to malnutrition and access barriers rather than absolute medical shortages. Per capita income reached ₹1,82,548 in 2024-25 (advance estimate), surpassing national growth but trailing advanced states, with inequality persisting as mining revenues benefit few districts.

Government and Politics

Executive and Legislative Structure

The executive power of the state of Odisha is vested in the Governor, who is appointed by the President of India for a term of five years and serves as the constitutional head. This power is exercised by the Governor either directly or through subordinate officers, but in practice, it is carried out on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, as mandated by Article 163 of the Indian Constitution. The Governor's role includes summoning and proroguing sessions of the Legislative Assembly, assenting to bills, and appointing the Chief Minister, who must command the confidence of the Assembly. The Chief Minister, typically the leader of the party or coalition holding a majority in the Legislative Assembly, is the real executive authority responsible for policy formulation, administration, and coordination of government departments. The Chief Minister appoints the Council of Ministers, whose members are collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly and aid in exercising executive functions across sectors such as finance, home affairs, and development. As of October 2025, the Council includes the Chief Minister and approximately 20 ministers, with portfolios allocated to address state-specific priorities like tribal welfare and infrastructure. Odisha maintains a unicameral legislature, the Odisha Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha), consisting of 147 members directly elected from single-member constituencies for five-year terms. The Assembly, seated in Bhubaneswar, holds legislative authority over state list subjects under the Indian Constitution, including powers to enact laws, approve the annual budget, and scrutinize executive actions through questions, motions, and committees. It also exercises control over public finances via the appropriation bill and can impeach ministers for misconduct. Unlike bicameral states, Odisha lacks a Legislative Council, streamlining the law-making process but concentrating power in the elected lower house.

Political Parties and Recent Elections

The major political parties active in Odisha include the Biju Janata Dal (BJD), a regional party formed in 1997 that emphasized state-specific development and welfare schemes under its long-time leader Naveen Patnaik, who served as Chief Minister from 2000 to 2024. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a national party with roots in Hindu nationalism and economic liberalization policies, has expanded its influence in the state through alliances with local tribal and anti-corruption sentiments. The Indian National Congress (INC), another national party historically dominant in post-independence India, maintains a presence focused on social welfare and minority outreach but has struggled against regional rivals. Smaller entities like the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) and independents play marginal roles, often contesting on labor or local issues. In the 2024 Odisha Legislative Assembly elections, held in multiple phases from May 13 to June 1, the BJP secured a majority with 78 seats out of 147, marking the end of the BJD's 24-year uninterrupted rule and leading to Mohan Charan Majhi becoming Chief Minister. The BJD won 51 seats, while the INC obtained 14, with one seat each for CPI(M) and independents. Voter turnout averaged around 75%, with the BJP's campaign highlighting governance failures under Patnaik, including allegations of corruption and neglect of tribal areas, contributing to its breakthrough in coastal and southern districts. Simultaneously, in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections for Odisha's 21 seats, conducted alongside assembly polls, the BJP achieved a near-sweep with 20 victories, leaving only one seat for the INC. The BJD failed to win any parliamentary seat, underscoring a broader rejection of its long-held dominance amid national alignment with the BJP's central leadership. These results reflected a polarization between regional incumbency fatigue and national party momentum, with the BJP capitalizing on anti-incumbency against the BJD's prolonged single-family leadership.

Administrative Subdivisions

Odisha is administratively organized into 30 districts, which serve as the primary units for governance, revenue administration, and development planning. These districts are grouped into three revenue divisions—Central, Northern, and Southern—each headed by a Revenue Divisional Commissioner responsible for supervising district collectors, coordinating inter-district activities, and ensuring policy implementation across sectors like law and order, land revenue, and disaster management. Each division encompasses 10 districts, facilitating decentralized administration while maintaining state-level oversight. At the sub-district level, the 30 districts contain 58 sub-divisions, each led by a sub-collector or sub-divisional magistrate who handles executive magistracy, revenue collection, and judicial functions such as maintaining law and order. Sub-divisions are further delineated into 317 tahsils (or tehsils), administrative units managed by tahsildars for land records, revenue assessment, and dispute resolution. For rural governance, districts are divided into 314 community development blocks, which coordinate panchayati raj institutions, agricultural extension, and rural infrastructure projects. These blocks oversee 6,801 gram panchayats and approximately 51,349 villages, forming the grassroots tier of administration. Urban areas within districts are governed separately through five municipal corporations (including those in Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, and Berhampur), 42 municipalities, and 85 notified area councils or town councils, responsible for civic services, urban planning, and local taxation. This multi-tiered structure supports efficient resource allocation and local self-governance, though challenges like overlapping jurisdictions between revenue and development blocks persist in implementation. Administrative boundaries were frozen as of July 1, 2025, to facilitate the upcoming census, prohibiting changes until after June 30, 2025.

Governance Challenges and Reforms

Odisha faces persistent governance challenges rooted in corruption, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and security threats from left-wing extremism. In September 2025, a Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) report revealed that government engineers in the state misappropriated ₹149 crore in public funds for personal expenses, highlighting systemic vulnerabilities in financial oversight and procurement processes. Vigilance raids in 2025 uncovered disproportionate assets, including 115 land plots and properties worth crores held by officials involved in bribery and land conversion scams, with arrests of high-ranking officers such as a 2019 civil services topper. Bureaucratic red-tapism has impeded transparency, as observed by the Orissa High Court in October 2025, which criticized the Odisha State Information Commission for succumbing to administrative influence, undermining accountability mechanisms intended to combat corruption. Left-wing extremism continues to strain governance in southern districts, disrupting infrastructure development and service delivery in tribal areas despite a decline from 10 to 7 affected districts as of April 2025. Naxal activities have historically delayed road construction, industrial projects, and governance outreach, exacerbating underdevelopment in mineral-rich but impoverished regions. Frequent natural disasters, including cyclones and floods, further challenge administrative capacity, though Odisha's vulnerability has been mitigated by prior investments; however, coordination gaps persist in rural and indigenous areas. Reforms under the BJP-led government since June 2024 emphasize anti-corruption enforcement and administrative streamlining. Chief Minister Mohan Charan Majhi issued warnings to officials in September 2025 following high-profile arrests, while Chief Secretary Manoj Ahuja outlined a preventive vigilance roadmap focusing on high-risk activities and asset verification to curb low-risk, high-profit corruption. The Odisha Vigilance Directorate reported freezing 792 bank accounts of corrupt officials and valuing seized properties at over ₹27 crore by 2025, signaling intensified asset recovery. In January 2025, Revenue Minister Suresh Pujari announced comprehensive reforms, including scrapping obsolete laws and modernizing land administration to reduce delays. The cabinet approved decriminalization of minor offenses in October 2025 to ease judicial burdens and enhance factory labor flexibility. Security measures against left-wing extremism include declaring districts like Bargarh naxal-free in August 2025 and bolstering police training, contributing to reduced violence and expanded development in former hotspots. Odisha's disaster management framework, evolved through the Odisha State Disaster Management Authority (OSDMA) established post-1999 super cyclone, exemplifies adaptive governance with community-level plans and rapid response forces, reducing fatalities via policy reforms and infrastructure like cyclone shelters. In 2024, amendments to the Odisha Gram Panchayat Act empowered local bodies for risk reduction, while 2025 plans shifted OSDMA's focus to resilience-building amid restructuring. These efforts, though promising, face tests from entrenched interests and uneven implementation in remote areas.

Economy

Odisha's Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) at current prices reached approximately ₹7.5 lakh crore in 2023-24, reflecting nominal growth driven by industrial expansion and resource extraction. At constant prices (base year 2011-12), the economy expanded by 8.5% in 2023-24, surpassing the national GDP growth of around 7.0%. This performance underscores Odisha's transition from an agrarian base to a mineral and industry-led economy, with mining and quarrying contributing significantly to output volatility tied to global commodity cycles. Sectoral contributions to GSDP at current prices in 2023-24 were led by services at 36%, followed by manufacturing at 34% and agriculture at 30%, highlighting diversification beyond primary sectors. Real growth rates varied, with services at 9.2%, manufacturing at 8.7%, and agriculture at 5.8%, the latter constrained by erratic monsoons and structural inefficiencies. For 2024-25, GSDP growth is estimated at 7.2% in real terms, exceeding India's projected 6.4%, though projections for 2025-26 suggest acceleration to 8-8.5% amid infrastructure push and private investments. Per capita income stood at nearly ₹1.6 lakh in 2023-24, trailing the national average of ₹1.8 lakh, indicative of persistent disparities despite aggregate gains. Historical trends show Odisha maintaining above-7% annual real GSDP growth in most post-2015 years, fueled by policy reforms in mining auctions and industrial corridors, though susceptibility to external shocks like the COVID-19 downturn temporarily dipped rates to negative in 2020-21 before rebounding. Fiscal prudence, with revenue surpluses, has supported sustained capital expenditure, positioning the state for compounded annual growth rates competitive among larger Indian states from 2020-2025.

Primary Sectors: Agriculture and Mining

Agriculture remains the mainstay of Odisha's economy, employing about 55% of the rural workforce. The sector, including allied activities, contributed 20.4% to the Gross State Value Added (GSVA) in fiscal year 2023-24 and recorded a growth of 3.5%, with projections for 3.3% growth in 2024-25. Paddy dominates cultivation, with an area of 3.95 million hectares across kharif and rabi seasons, producing 13.8 million tonnes in 2021-22, equivalent to about 9.2 million tonnes of rice. Other principal crops include maize, pulses like arhar and green gram, and oilseeds, though food grains account for the bulk of output, with a productivity of 1,798 kg per hectare in 2023. Irrigation supports agricultural stability, with the state having completed 15 major and 56 medium projects, including the Hirakud Dam on the Mahanadi River, which irrigates extensive areas in coastal and inland districts. Cropping intensity stands at 117% as of 2023, below the national average of 156%, reflecting opportunities for expanded rabi cultivation and improved water management. Odisha's mining sector drives primary economic activity, contributing over 42% to the value of India's principal mineral production in FY 2023-24. The state possesses 28% of national iron ore reserves, 59% bauxite, 24% coal, and 98% chromite, fueling industries like steel and aluminum. Iron ore production reached 169 million tonnes in a recent reporting period, primarily from districts such as Keonjhar, Sundargarh, and Mayurbhanj. Bauxite and chromite outputs position Odisha as the leading producer nationally for these minerals, with the sector's value exceeding Rs. 87,000 crore in 2021-22. Extraction supports exports and domestic manufacturing but requires balancing with environmental safeguards.

Industrial and Service Sectors

Odisha's industrial sector, encompassing manufacturing, mining, and utilities, contributed 43.3% to the state's gross state value added (GSVA) in 2023-24, driven primarily by mineral-based industries. The state accounts for 55% of India's iron ore production, supporting steel and downstream manufacturing, while holding 20% of national steelmaking capacity and 54% of aluminum smelting capacity. Key hubs include Paradip for ports and steel, and Angul-Talcher for power and metals, with the sector achieving a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 10% from FY2015 to FY2024, exceeding national averages. Recent investments underscore expansion, with approvals for projects worth Rs 1.51 lakh crore in June 2025, projected to generate over 60,200 jobs, including Vedanta's Rs 1.28 lakh crore, 3 million tonnes per annum (MTPA) aluminum smelter in Dhenkanal. In September 2025, ground-breaking ceremonies launched 27 projects valued at Rs 25,308 crore, focusing on metals, chemicals, and food processing. Micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) bolster the sector, positioning Odisha among India's top ten states for such units, which account for 45% of manufacturing output and 40% of exports. The industry is forecast to grow 6.1% in 2024-25, contributing 43.9% to GSVA. The service sector, including trade, IT, and tourism, comprised 36.3% of GSVA in 2023-24, with projections for 10% growth in 2024-25, raising its share to 37.1%. Bhubaneswar has emerged as an IT/ITeS hub, attracting major firms and supporting ambitions for Odisha to reach a USD 1.5 trillion economy by 2047 through digital services. Tourism, leveraging sites like the Jagannath Temple and Chilika Lake, contributes approximately 13% to state GDP and drives employment in hospitality and transport. Combined, industry and services form 79% of GSDP, reflecting a shift from primary sectors.

Infrastructure and Recent Investments

Odisha possesses an extensive road network spanning 254,845 km, including 5,762 km of national highways, facilitating connectivity across its diverse terrain. Recent enhancements include the impending construction of the Odisha Ring Road, aimed at improving links to Bhubaneswar Airport, major railway stations, and logistics hubs. In railways, the state advances projects such as the ₹4.92 billion Puri-Konark rail line, a 32 km corridor integrating temple sites with modern electrification and signaling. Paradip Port serves as a primary maritime gateway, supporting freight for minerals and bulk cargo under national initiatives like Sagarmala. Biju Patnaik International Airport in Bhubaneswar handles domestic and international flights, bolstered by state-owned airstrips totaling 19 facilities. The power sector features ongoing reforms in transmission and distribution, drawing from Odisha's early unbundling model to enhance reliability. Renewable energy developments include the 2025 Pumped Storage Policy targeting 45 projects for grid stability and the approval of 178 MW capacity—174 MW solar and 4 MW wind—with ₹869.8 crore investment across districts like Subarnapur and Kalahandi. Upcoming renewable initiatives encompass solar parks by entities like JSW Neo Energy in Koraput and wind projects in Jharsuguda. Urban infrastructure centers on Bhubaneswar as a Smart City, implementing intelligent traffic systems and sustainable mobility under national programs. The Bhubaneswar Metro, initially planned as a 26 km elevated line, faced contract cancellations in July 2025 due to delays and payment disputes with contractors like Ceigall India and DMRC; revival efforts now propose an underground alignment. Recent investments emphasize integrated infrastructure, with approvals in 2025 including 18 proposals worth ₹4,515 crore for logistics and transport across eight districts, generating 8,200 jobs. In September, 25 projects totaling ₹4,739 crore targeted sectors like electronics and chemicals, incorporating ancillary infrastructure in areas such as Jharsuguda and Angul. A landmark October 2025 clearance of 33 industrial ventures valued at ₹1.46 lakh crore features energy-linked projects, including Adani Enterprises' ₹84,000 crore coal-to-chemicals facility in Sundargarh, expected to spur power and logistics upgrades. These align with the Odisha Logistics Policy 2022, promoting multi-modal connectivity via roads, rails, and waterways.

Economic Controversies and Tribal Impacts

Odisha's economic pursuits in mining and heavy industry have generated significant controversies, particularly in tribal areas where projects promise growth but frequently entail displacement, environmental harm, and violations of indigenous rights under the Forest Rights Act, 2006. Scheduled Tribes account for 22.85% of the state's population per the 2011 Census, often residing in mineral-rich forested regions like Kalahandi, Rayagada, and Keonjhar. These initiatives, driven by the state's deposits of bauxite, iron ore, and coal, have displaced thousands, with tribals comprising over 50% of those affected in mining-related cases nationwide, though Odisha-specific figures highlight similar patterns of livelihood erosion without proportional benefits. The Vedanta Aluminium bauxite mining proposal in Niyamgiri Hills exemplifies these tensions, targeting sacred lands of the Dongria Kondh, a particularly vulnerable tribal group dependent on forest resources. In April 2013, the Supreme Court mandated gram sabha consultations; by August 19, 2013, all 12 assemblies unanimously rejected the project, prioritizing religious and ecological integrity over projected revenues of billions. Vedanta contested the process, alleging procedural flaws, but the rejection stood, stalling a refinery expansion and underscoring failures in securing free, prior, and informed consent, as required by law. Recent attempts to revive mining in 2025 faced halts over claims of forged tribal signatures in gram sabha records, renewing debates on state complicity in bypassing community vetoes. Violence erupted in Kalinganagar in 2006 during protests against Tata Steel's plant boundary wall on acquired tribal lands, where police firing on January 2 killed at least 12 demonstrators, including women and a child, amid demands for better compensation. The clash exposed systemic issues: tribals lost fertile betel vine and paddy fields with minimal rehabilitation, as industrial corridors displaced over 1,000 families without restoring pre-project income levels, per local assessments. Similar grievances fueled resistance to the POSCO steel plant in Jagatsinghpur, where betel farmers and fishers—many from scheduled tribe backgrounds—opposed displacing 4,000+ households; sustained blockades and legal challenges prompted POSCO's withdrawal on March 18, 2017, after a $12 billion investment faltered due to unresolved land disputes. Tribal communities bear disproportionate impacts, including deforestation exceeding 10,000 hectares in mining districts since 2000, water contamination from tailings, and health issues like respiratory diseases from dust. Displaced families often receive cash payouts insufficient for land repurchase, leading to assetlessness; empirical studies show 40-50% fail to regain equivalent livelihoods, with women and children facing heightened vulnerability to migration and exploitation. Critics, including affected groups, argue that revenue from mining—contributing 20% to state GDP—rarely trickles to tribals, fostering inequality despite mandates for 26% local equity under the Mines and Minerals Act. Pro-industry views emphasize job creation (e.g., 10,000+ in operational mines), yet data reveal most positions go to outsiders, leaving tribals in informal, low-wage roles. These disputes reflect causal disconnects between elite-driven extraction and ground-level costs, with rehabilitation failures rooted in weak enforcement rather than inherent opposition to development.

Social Infrastructure

Education System

The education system in Odisha encompasses primary, secondary, and higher education, administered primarily by the state government through departments like School and Mass Education and Higher Education. As of the 2011 census, Odisha's overall literacy rate stood at 73.5%, marginally below the national average of 74.04%, with male literacy at 82.4% and female at 64.0%. Recent assessments indicate improvements in school education quality, with Odisha ranking in the top five states per the Performance Grading Index (PGI) 2.0 report for 2022-23, reflecting gains in access, infrastructure, and learning outcomes, though digital literacy remains a concern. Primary and secondary education face challenges including high dropout rates, particularly among Scheduled Tribes (STs) and in rural areas. The annual average dropout rate at the secondary level reached 9.8% in the 2024-25 academic year, up from prior years, while Class X dropout stood at 49.9% in 2021-22, the highest nationally. ST dropout rates have declined to 18% from 33% through targeted interventions like experimental learning programs. Enrollment in government schools has seen retention improvements at middle (3.2%) and secondary levels, supported by initiatives such as the SARTHAQ program aiming for foundational literacy and numeracy by 2025, and the 'Back to School' drive that re-enrolled over 1,800 dropouts in districts like Malkangiri by October 2025. In August 2025, the state announced primary education reforms to enhance teacher training, curriculum alignment, and infrastructure in underserved areas. Higher education enrollment grew from 10.15 lakh students in 2017-18 to 10.73 lakh in 2021-22 across universities, colleges, and technical institutes. The state hosts central institutions like Jawaharlal Nehru University affiliates and state universities such as Utkal University, with 742,731 students enrolled in colleges as of 2021. Reforms under the National Education Policy 2020 focus on multidisciplinary education and equity, though challenges persist in faculty development, enrollment declines in some colleges, and access for tribal populations. Programs like Odisha Adarsha Vidyalayas aim to bridge quality gaps by providing residential schooling in remote regions. Persistent issues include inadequate infrastructure, teacher shortages, and low transition rates from secondary to higher education, exacerbated by socioeconomic factors in tribal-dominated districts.

Healthcare and Public Health

Odisha's healthcare system is managed by the Department of Health and Family Welfare, emphasizing universal coverage through state-led initiatives integrated with national programs like the National Health Mission (NHM). The state has implemented the Biju Swasthya Kalyan Yojana (BSKY), providing cashless secondary and tertiary care up to ₹5 lakh per family annually, plus an additional ₹5 lakh for women, covering approximately 86% of the population across 29 empaneled hospitals. In January 2025, Odisha became the 34th state to adopt Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY), enhancing portability and coverage for vulnerable groups. The 2024-25 budget allocated ₹21,200 crore to public health, a 32% increase from the previous year, representing 8.7% of total state expenditure, surpassing the national average of 6.2%. Infrastructure remains strained, with government facilities facing a 64% shortfall in hospital beds relative to prescribed norms, as per a Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) audit. The doctor-to-population ratio stands at 1:2,187, below the national average of 1:834 and the World Health Organization's recommended 1:1,000. Primary health centers (PHCs) and community health centers serve rural areas, but district-level efficiency varies, with data envelopment analysis revealing inefficiencies in resource utilization across 30 districts, particularly in western tribal-heavy regions. Public health providers number about 4 per 10,000 population, with a 1:1 doctor-to-staff nurse ratio in place. Key public health indicators show progress amid persistent gaps: the infant mortality rate (IMR) declined by 24 points under NHM interventions, though Odisha's rate remains elevated at around 38 per 1,000 live births per National Family Health Survey-5 (2019-21) data, exceeding the national 30. Maternal mortality ratio (MMR) dropped 81 points to 150 per 100,000 live births (2016-18), driven by increased institutional deliveries from 28% to 72%. Institutional birth rates and immunization coverage have risen, with birth rates falling to 17.7 per 1,000 in 2020. However, life expectancy and under-five mortality lag in tribal districts due to uneven access. Major challenges concentrate in tribal and rural areas, where malaria and malnutrition coexist as primary burdens, affecting under-five children with co-prevalence rates up to 45% in endemic zones. Particularly vulnerable tribal groups (PVTGs) exhibit high rates of low body mass index and anemia, compounded by respiratory infections, diarrheal diseases, and tuberculosis. Western districts suffer from a de facto separate, under-resourced system compared to coastal areas, with poverty, illiteracy, and poor sanitation exacerbating outcomes despite NHM efforts in vector control and nutritional supplementation. CAG findings underscore underutilization and supply gaps, questioning the efficacy of expanded budgets without addressing human resource shortages.
IndicatorOdisha ValueNational ComparisonSource
IMR (per 1,000 live births)~38 (2019-21)30 (2019)NFHS-5
MMR (per 100,000 live births)150 (2016-18)97 (2018-20 est.)SRS Bulletin
Doctor-Population Ratio1:2,1871:834State estimates

Literacy and Human Development

Odisha's literacy rate, as recorded in the 2011 census, stood at 72.87 percent overall, with male literacy at 81.59 percent and female literacy at 64.01 percent, reflecting a decadal increase of 9.79 percentage points from 63.08 percent in 2001. This progress aligned Odisha closely with the national average of 72.99 percent at the time, though it masked persistent gaps, including a gender disparity of 17.58 percentage points. Recent assessments, such as the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), indicate substantial gains in foundational literacy and numeracy among government school students over the past decade, driven by targeted interventions in basic skills. The state exhibits marked rural-urban divides in literacy, with urban areas achieving rates exceeding 85 percent in districts like Khordha, compared to rural averages below 70 percent in tribal-dominated regions. Tribal communities, comprising about 22.8 percent of Odisha's population, face particularly low literacy at approximately 52.24 percent, attributable to geographic isolation, linguistic barriers, and socioeconomic marginalization rather than inherent cultural factors. Gender gaps are more pronounced in rural and tribal settings, where female literacy lags due to early marriage, household labor demands, and inadequate school infrastructure, though state programs like multilingual education in tribal dialects have begun narrowing these through culturally adapted curricula. On human development, Odisha's composite Human Development Index (HDI) rose from 0.310 in 1992-93 to 0.614 in 2021-22, signaling advancements in life expectancy, education, and per capita income, though it remains below the national subnational average and trails states like Kerala or Tamil Nadu. This trajectory reflects causal links between literacy gains and broader indicators, such as reduced infant mortality and increased school enrollment under initiatives like the Right to Education Act, yet challenges persist from high poverty rates (around 32 percent multidimensional poverty) and uneven resource allocation favoring urban centers. Empirical data underscore that infrastructure deficits in remote areas, including teacher shortages and seasonal migration disrupting attendance, continue to impede convergence with national benchmarks, necessitating prioritized investments in tribal and female education for sustained causal improvements.

Culture and Society

Literature, Language, and Performing Arts

Odia, the official language of Odisha, is an Indo-Aryan language with roots tracing to ancient eastern Prakrit dialects and a distinct evolution from the 10th century onward, when it diverged from regional vernaculars used by local populations amid elite Sanskrit dominance. It received classical language status from the Government of India in 2014, recognizing its literary heritage exceeding 1,500 years, independent script, and substantial body of ancient texts. The Odia script, derived from Brahmi, features rounded characters adapted for palm-leaf engraving, facilitating preservation of works through incision and herbal ink application. Odia literature's foundational text is Sarala Das's Mahabharata, composed around 1460–1470 AD, a vernacular adaptation emphasizing local heroic ethos over Sanskrit orthodoxy and establishing narrative poetry in the Paika (warrior) tradition. Medieval Odia poetry flourished with Upendra Bhanja's (c. 1688–?) ornate Baidehisha Bilasa and Labanyabati, known for intricate wordplay and devotion, influencing subsequent lyrical forms. The modern era began with Fakir Mohan Senapati (1843–1918), whose novel Chha Mana Atha Guntha (serialized 1897–1898), depicted agrarian exploitation under colonial rule through realist prose, earning him recognition as the progenitor of Odia fiction. Odisha holds India's largest repository of palm-leaf manuscripts, over 20,000 items in state collections, housing Odia texts on epics, philosophy, and folklore etched from the 13th century, underscoring the medium's role in literary continuity despite environmental degradation risks. Performing arts in Odisha center on Odissi, a classical dance form originating in temple rituals at sites like the Jagannath Temple in Puri, where mahari (devadasi) dancers performed abhinaya (expressive mime) to Odia bhajans from the 2nd century BC, as evidenced by sculptural motifs in caves and temples. Revived post-independence through gurus like Kelucharan Mohapatra, Odissi integrates tribhangi (three-bend posture) and fluid mudras, accompanied by Odissi music featuring mardala drums, violin, and flute for rhythmic talas. Chhau, a semi-classical mask dance from Mayurbhanj district, blends martial training with folk narratives, using energetic leaps and combat simulations to depict myths, performed maskless in Seraikella style but masked in Odisha's Purulia variant since the 16th century. Folk theatre known as Jatra, evolved from medieval devotional processions, combines singing, acting, and improvisation in open-air enactments of epics and social tales, sustained by touring troupes with instruments like dhol and harmonium. Traditional music employs indigenous instruments such as mahuri (oboe-like wind), dhola (double-headed drum), and mridanga for folk genres like Adi Dhun, evoking agrarian and ritual rhythms in tribal and coastal communities.

Religious Practices and Festivals

Hinduism predominates in Odisha, with 93.63% of the population identifying as Hindu according to the 2011 census, followed by Christians at 2.77% and Muslims at 2.17%, while tribal and other indigenous faiths account for about 1.14%. Religious practices blend mainstream Hindu traditions with syncretic elements from ancient tribal animism, particularly evident in the worship of Lord Jagannath, which incorporates indigenous Sabara tribal veneration of wooden idols into Vaishnavism. Shaivism and Shaktism also hold prominence, with temples like Lingaraja in Bhubaneswar dedicated to Shiva and numerous Shakti pithas honoring the divine feminine. Tribal communities, comprising over 22% of Odisha's population, maintain animistic practices centered on nature spirits, ancestor worship, and village deities, often merging with Hindu rituals; for instance, tribes like the Kondh and Saora perform sacrifices and festivals invoking local gods alongside Hindu pantheon figures. In Hindu temples, unique rituals distinguish Odia practices, such as the daily Mangala Aarti at dawn in the Jagannath Temple, where priests offer lamps to the deities without closing the sanctum doors at night, symbolizing eternal vigilance. The Nabakalebara ceremony, occurring every 8, 12, or 19 years, involves ritually replacing the wooden deities' bodies through a secretive transfer of the Brahman Padarth (divine essence), last performed in 2015. The Rath Yatra, or Chariot Festival, held annually on Ashadha Shukla Dwitiya (typically June or July), is Odisha's most significant event, drawing over a million devotees to Puri where massive wooden chariots carry Jagannath, Balabhadra, and Subhadra nine kilometers to Gundicha Temple; the 2025 observance is scheduled for June 27. Preceding it, the Snana Yatra bathing ritual on Jyeshtha Purnima sees the deities bathed in 108 pots of scented water, after which they enter a 15-day Anavasara period of "illness" and recovery with herbal pastes. Other key Hindu festivals include the 42-day Chandan Yatra, featuring boat processions with sandalwood paste applications, and Durga Puja, celebrated elaborately in Cuttack with silver-plated idols and community pandals. Tribal festivals like the Karja of the Dongria Kondh, involving merit feasts and dances for harvest prosperity, persist alongside mainstream observances. Christian communities observe Christmas and Easter, while Muslims mark Eid, though these remain localized.

Traditional Architecture and Crafts

Odisha's traditional architecture is epitomized by the Kalinga style, a regional variant of the Nagara tradition characterized by tall, curvilinear shikhara towers (Rekha Deula) atop sanctums and stepped, pyramidal assembly halls (Pidha Deula), often adorned with intricate stone carvings depicting deities, mythical scenes, and floral motifs. This style emerged around the 6th century CE and peaked between the 11th and 13th centuries under dynasties like the Somavamsis and Eastern Gangas, with temples built primarily from khondalite stone quarried locally. The architecture reflects a synthesis of indigenous Dravidian influences and northern Indo-Aryan elements, prioritizing verticality and symbolic cosmology over horizontal sprawl. The Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar, dedicated to Shiva, exemplifies early mature Kalinga architecture, constructed in the 11th century CE under King Jajati Kesari of the Somavamsi dynasty on foundations possibly dating to the 6th century. Its 55-meter-high vimana features a ribbed, beehive-like tower with miniature replicas (urushringas) and detailed friezes of dancers and guardians, while the jagamohana porch showcases perforated windows and erotic sculptures influenced by Tantric traditions. Similarly, the Konark Sun Temple, built circa 1250 CE by King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, innovates the style by conceiving the structure as a massive stone chariot for Surya, complete with 24 carved wheels (each 3 meters in diameter) and seven rearing horse figures, symbolizing the sun's daily journey; its walls bear over 1,800 images of celestial beings and daily life, though the main tower collapsed due to structural overload by the 19th century. Traditional crafts in Odisha, sustained by temple patronage and rural artisan guilds (Mahajati), include painting, textile embellishment, and metalwork, often tied to rituals for deities like Jagannath. Pattachitra, a cloth-based scroll painting using natural pigments on treated canvas, originated in the 12th century among chitrakars serving Puri's Jagannath Temple, depicting mythological narratives with bold outlines and vivid colors derived from stones, shells, and plants; the art form's endurance stems from its role in pilgrim souvenirs and festival backdrops. Applique work from Pipili, known as Chandua, involves layering and stitching colored fabric patches into canopies and umbrellas for temple processions, tracing to 12th-century Jagannath cult practices by Muslim artisans under royal commission, featuring motifs of birds, flowers, and elephants on cotton or velvet bases. Silver filigree, or Tarakasi from Cuttack, entails twisting fine silver wires into intricate lattice designs for jewelry and votive objects, a technique introduced possibly in the 13th century via Persian influences during Ganga rule and refined over centuries for Durga idols and ornaments; artisans draw wire from ingots, solder motifs without filler, and polish for luster, yielding lightweight yet durable pieces that highlight Odisha's metallurgical heritage. Stone and wood carving, integral to temple construction, persist in sculpting figurines from soapstone (khondalite) or sandalwood, while bell-metal casting (Dhokra) produces lost-wax icons, all supported by government clusters preserving techniques against modernization pressures.

Cuisine and Daily Life

Odia cuisine relies heavily on rice as its staple, typically served as steamed bhata or fermented pakhala bhata, the latter soaked in water and curd to aid digestion and provide cooling relief during humid summers. Accompaniments feature vegetable-lentil stews like dalma, prepared by simmering split pigeon peas with pumpkin, drumsticks, eggplant, and raw banana, then tempered with cumin, asafoetida, and ghee for a mild, aromatic flavor without excessive spices. Mustard oil serves as the primary cooking medium, imparting a pungent note to greens such as saga bhaja (stir-fried leafy vegetables) and besara (mustard paste-based curry with fish or vegetables). Seafood dominates coastal diets, with freshwater and marine fish curried in mustard gravies or steamed, reflecting Odisha's 480-kilometer shoreline and inland wetlands; prawns and crabs appear in dishes like chingri malai curry, cooked lightly to preserve natural flavors. Vegetarian temple offerings from sites like Puri's Jagannath Temple emphasize satvic preparations—excluding onion, garlic, and root vegetables—such as khichdi (rice-lentil porridge) and poda pitha (fermented rice cakes baked in earthen pots), which influence household rituals and festivals. Sweets derived from chhena (fresh cheese curds), including baked chhena poda and syrup-soaked rasagola, trace origins to 19th-century Puri innovations and carry religious weight during events like Rath Yatra. Daily life in Odisha, where roughly 83% of the 46 million residents inhabit rural areas as of 2021 estimates, orbits seasonal agriculture, with families commencing fieldwork at dawn on paddy fields irrigated by rivers like the Mahanadi. Around 76% of the workforce engages in farming, fishing, or allied pursuits, yielding rice as the chief crop alongside pulses, oilseeds, and cash crops; coastal communities near Chilika Lake supplement incomes through prawn and fish harvesting from its 1,100 square kilometers of brackish waters. Meals punctuate routines—breakfast of fermented rice or rice cakes, lunch of bhata with curries shared communally, and light dinners—often prepared over wood fires in villages lacking full electrification. Joint and extended family systems predominate in rural households, pooling labor for harvests and elder care, though nuclear units rise in urban hubs like Bhubaneswar, where service-sector jobs and migration erode traditional setups. Tribal groups, comprising 23% of the population, integrate forest foraging and shifting cultivation into livelihoods, while urban dwellers prioritize education for professions in IT or government, with daily commutes via expanding bus networks. Religious observances, market visits, and village councils shape evenings, underscoring a blend of agrarian resilience and gradual modernization.

Sports and Leisure

Traditional and Indigenous Sports

Traditional and indigenous sports in Odisha encompass rural folk games and tribal practices that emphasize physical endurance, skill, and communal participation, often played during festivals or village gatherings. These activities, rooted in the state's agrarian and forested landscapes, include variants of tag, throwing contests, and team-based challenges that predate modern sports infrastructure. The Odisha government has actively promoted such games, introducing 75 traditional ones into school curricula in July 2024 to foster physical and mental development among children, drawing from regional customs rather than urban imports. Among tribal indigenous sports, Chaki Khela, popular among the Juang community—a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) in districts like Jajpur, Dhenkanal, and Keonjhar—involves teams of seven to nine players using a stick to strike a circular rubber disc (chaki) fashioned from old slippers or sheets, resembling a rudimentary field game focused on agility and control. Revival efforts, such as those by Tata Steel in Sukinda in 2018, highlight its role in preserving cultural heritage amid declining practice due to modernization. Other tribal games incorporate hunting-derived skills like archery, practiced by groups such as the Kondh for subsistence and ritual, though formalized competitions remain limited. Rural traditional games feature Nadia Phinga, a throwing contest where participants hurl coconuts across land or water surfaces, with the winner determined by distance achieved, testing arm strength and accuracy. Similarly, Rasi Tana pits teams in a tug-of-war using ropes, emphasizing collective power and balance, often held as village strength displays. Puchi, predominantly played by girls in squatting positions—either Thia Puchi (leg sliding while seated) or Basa Puchi—builds lower-body endurance and is performed in groups to measure stamina, reflecting gender-specific leisure in rural settings. Games like Gudu (a tag variant akin to pursuit evasion) and Kelibadi further illustrate adaptive play using minimal equipment, fostering coordination without reliance on manufactured tools. These sports underscore Odisha's tribal diversity, with over 60 communities preserving practices tied to daily survival and social rites, though urbanization and school prioritization of mainstream athletics have reduced their prevalence since the mid-20th century. Initiatives under programs like Khelo India integrate them into formal training, aiming to blend cultural retention with competitive viability.

Modern Sports Infrastructure and Achievements

Odisha has invested heavily in modern sports infrastructure, with the Kalinga Stadium in Bhubaneswar serving as a central multi-purpose facility equipped for athletics, football, field hockey, basketball, tennis, table tennis, badminton, volleyball, and wall climbing, featuring an 8-lane synthetic track and gymnasium. The adjacent Kalinga Hockey Stadium Complex hosts national and international hockey events, contributing to the state's role in elevating Indian hockey through world-class turf and training amenities. Additional developments include six FIFA-standard football pitches (five natural turf, one synthetic) with floodlights and spectator galleries, alongside a statewide masterplan encompassing 21 hockey training centers, district-level sports complexes, and multi-sport venues such as aquatic centers. In 2025, the state allocated a record ₹1,300 crore annual sports budget to construct facilities like an Indoor Athletics Centre and the Jajpur Sports Complex, with a broader ₹4,124 crore initiative funding ultra-modern stadiums across blocks to foster grassroots talent. A flagship ₹1,000 crore state-of-the-art stadium project in Bhubaneswar aims to further position the capital as a sports hub. These investments have yielded notable achievements, particularly in hockey, where Odisha's men's team clinched the 14th Hockey India Senior Men National Championship in 2024, marking their first title amid strong state support for national success, including bronze medals for India's Olympic team. At the 38th National Games in 2025, Odisha athletes secured 14 gold, 15 silver, and 17 bronze medals, while 237 performers received cash awards for national and international results. Standout athletes include sprinter Dutee Chand, who has competed internationally, and para-athletes who won nine medals (two gold, three silver, four bronze) at the World Abilitysport Games. The state also hosted India's first World Athletics Continental Tour event in 2025, boosting visibility for track and field.

Tourism and Heritage

Historical and Cultural Sites

Odisha preserves a rich array of historical and cultural sites spanning from the Mauryan era to medieval kingdoms, showcasing Kalinga architecture, Jain asceticism, Buddhist scholarship, and imperial edicts. These monuments, primarily concentrated in the eastern coastal regions, reflect the state's role as a center of religious syncretism and artistic excellence under dynasties like the Eastern Gangas and Somavamsis. The Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar exemplifies 11th-century Kalinga architecture, constructed during the reign of the Somavamsi king Jajati Keshari, with its towering vimana rising 55 meters in the rekha deula style featuring pancharatha projections and intricate sandstone carvings. The temple complex includes a jagamohana assembly hall and is dedicated to Shiva as Tribhuvaneswara, embodying the pinnacle of Odishan temple design without a platform base. Further south, the Konark Sun Temple, built in 1250 CE by Eastern Ganga king Narasimhadeva I, represents a monumental chariot dedicated to Surya, with 24 massive wheels and seven horses symbolizing the sun's daily journey; designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984, it attests to the dynasty's architectural prowess and astronomical knowledge. The structure's erotic sculptures and structural engineering highlight 13th-century Orissan innovation, though partial ruin from natural decay and invasions underscores its historical vulnerability. In Puri, the Jagannath Temple, erected in the 12th century by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, serves as a core pilgrimage site in the Char Dham, housing wooden idols of Jagannath (Vishnu), Balabhadra, and Subhadra in a curvilinear shikhara tower. Its vast kitchen, capable of feeding thousands daily, and the periodic Nabakalebara ritual of idol renewal every 8-19 years preserve unique Vaishnava traditions dating to the temple's founding. Ancient rock-cut caves at Udayagiri and Khandagiri, excavated in the 1st century BCE under Chedi king Kharavela—a devout Jain—provided residences for ascetics, featuring 18 double-storied chambers with elephant motifs and inscriptions detailing royal patronage. These sites, overlooking Bhubaneswar, illustrate early Jain monastic life and the integration of natural hills into sacred architecture. Dhauli hill bears Ashoka's Major Rock Edicts from the 3rd century BCE, inscribed post-Kalinga War in Prakrit using Brahmi script; edicts I-X and XIV, plus two special Kalinga edicts, proclaim dhamma policies, with the site's elephant carving symbolizing the Buddha's conception. The 1972 Shanti Stupa atop the hill commemorates Ashoka's pacifist turn, blending Mauryan imperial legacy with modern Buddhist symbolism. The Ratnagiri Buddhist complex, flourishing from the 7th to 13th centuries CE, forms part of the "Diamond Triangle" with nearby Udayagiri and Lalitgiri, featuring a massive stupa, vihara monastery, and Vajrayana artifacts that mark it as a cradle of tantric Buddhism in eastern India. Excavations reveal ornate sculptures and seals indicating royal endowments, affirming Odisha's medieval role in Mahayana and Vajrayana dissemination.

Natural and Eco-Tourism Attractions

Odisha's natural and eco-tourism attractions encompass wetlands, mangroves, tiger reserves, and coastal ecosystems, drawing visitors for wildlife safaris, birdwatching, and low-impact nature experiences. The state features 19 wildlife sanctuaries, two tiger reserves, one national park, and a biosphere reserve, alongside a 480-kilometer shoreline that supports diverse biodiversity. Eco-tourism initiatives emphasize camping, trekking, boating, and guided tours in areas like Similipal Tiger Reserve and Bhitarkanika, promoting conservation while generating local employment. Chilika Lake, Asia's largest brackish water lagoon and a Ramsar site since 1981, spans over 1,100 square kilometers and hosts a biodiversity hotspot with more than 400 vertebrate species, including over a million migratory waterfowl and endangered Irrawaddy dolphins. The lagoon's estuarine ecosystem supports rare IUCN-listed species and offers eco-tourism via boating for dolphin sightings and birdwatching, particularly from October to March when migratory birds arrive. Conservation efforts by the Chilika Development Authority have restored hydrological balance, enhancing fish stocks and tourism potential without compromising ecological integrity. Bhitarkanika National Park, established in 1998 and a Ramsar site since 2002, covers 145 square kilometers within a larger 672-square-kilometer mangrove ecosystem, the second largest in India after the Sundarbans. It harbors the highest density of saltwater crocodiles in India, with the world's largest recorded estuarine giant at 23 feet, alongside diverse avifauna and reptiles in its creeks and forests. Eco-tourism includes boat safaris through mangroves, where visitors observe nesting olive ridley turtles and kingfishers, regulated to minimize disturbance to breeding crocodiles during monsoon closures. Similipal Tiger Reserve, spanning 2,750 square kilometers in Mayurbhanj district, is a UNESCO biosphere reserve featuring monsoon forests, 99 Royal Bengal tigers, 432 elephants, and over 500 bird species, including orchids and waterfalls like Barehipani (399 meters high). Eco-tourism facilities include nature camps at sites like Talabandha, jeep safaris, and trekking trails, with bookings managed to limit visitor numbers and protect habitats. The reserve's core area restricts access, focusing tourism on buffer zones for sustainable viewing of herbivores and carnivores. Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary, notified in 1985 and covering 347 square kilometers near Hirakud Reservoir, supports over 40 mammal species, 234 birds, and 41 reptiles across wetlands, grasslands, and forests formed by the Mahanadi delta. Eco-tourism offerings comprise jeep safaris from Zeropoint to Parbatitang and nature camps, enabling sightings of leopards, sloth bears, and butterflies while bordering human-free zones for habitat preservation.

Tourism Development and Challenges

The Odisha Tourism Policy 2022 seeks to integrate tourism as a key economic driver by promoting diverse products such as eco-tourism, adventure tourism, and cultural heritage, with incentives including subsidies up to INR 20 crore for investors in tourism infrastructure. In the 2025-26 state budget, Rs 820 crore was allocated to tourism, aiming to enhance employment and economic growth through expanded facilities and marketing. Domestic tourist arrivals exceeded 1 crore in 2023, reflecting steady growth driven by initiatives like the Adventure Tourism Guidelines-2025, which target developing all 30 districts as adventure hubs with activities such as rafting and ballooning. The sector contributed approximately 13% to Odisha's GDP in 2023-24, supported by schemes like the Baristha Nagarika Tirtha Yatra Yojana for senior citizen pilgrimages and eco-tourism development with Rs 56 crore funding over five years. Despite these efforts, tourism development faces significant infrastructure deficits, including inadequate connectivity via roads, airports, and railways, which limit access to remote attractions and deter international visitors. Safety concerns for travelers, a shortage of hotels meeting international standards, and pollution in popular sites like coastal beaches hinder broader appeal. Environmental challenges are pronounced, with coastal tourism contributing to beach degradation through erosion, overfishing, and anthropogenic pollution, exacerbated by rapid tourist influx without sufficient controls. Proposals to relax forest and wildlife restrictions near national parks, such as Bhitarkanika, to boost tourism have sparked controversy over potential ecological harm, highlighting tensions between development and conservation. Additionally, a lack of skilled labor and training programs impedes sustainable practices, while seasonal fluctuations and vulnerability to cyclones disrupt consistent growth.

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