Hubbry Logo
The Discarded ImageThe Discarded ImageMain
Open search
The Discarded Image
Community hub
The Discarded Image
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
The Discarded Image
The Discarded Image
The Discarded Image
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature[1] is a non-fiction book by C. S. Lewis. It was his last book and deals with medieval cosmology and the Ptolemaic universe. It portrays the medieval conception of a "model" of the world, which Lewis described as "the medieval synthesis itself, the whole organization of their theology, science and history into a single, complex, harmonious mental model of the universe."[2]

Key Information

Synopsis

[edit]

The book includes such concepts as the structure of the medieval universe, the nature of its inhabitants, the notion of a finite universe, ordered and maintained by a celestial hierarchy, and the ideas of nature. At the same time, Lewis takes his reader on a tour of some of the pinnacles of medieval thought (some of them inherited from Classical paganism) that have survived into the modern cultural and theological landscape.

The titles of the chapters are

  1. The Medieval Situation
  2. Reservations
  3. Selected Materials: The Classical Period
  4. Selected Materials: The Seminal Period
  5. The Heavens
  6. The "Longaevi"
  7. Earth and Her Inhabitants
  8. The Influence of the Model

"The Medieval Situation" and "Reservations"

[edit]

Lewis begins by introducing the Middle Ages as a whole and by laying out the components that shaped their world view. This worldview, or "Model of the Universe", was shaped by two factors in particular: "the essentially bookish character of their culture, and their intense love of system".[3] The bookish character combines with the need for order: "All the apparent contradictions must be harmonised. A Model must be built which will get everything in without a clash; and it can do this only by becoming intricate, by mediating its unity through a great, and finely ordered, multiplicity."[3]

He is quick to point out the possible flaws he feels some may see in his conception. The "Model" is primarily based in art and literature. It does not account for historical changes in philosophic schools or serve as a general history of science or medicine. In addition, only bits and pieces of the Model served as part of the general backdrop of the age. And, above all, Lewis is clear to state that, "On the highest level, then, the Model was recognised as provisional. What we should like to know is how far down the intellectual scale this cautious view extended."[4]

"Selected Materials: The Classical Period"

[edit]

Lewis provides summaries of the classical texts he believes most informed the medieval Model. He excludes the Bible, Virgil, and Ovid as texts that a student of medieval literature should already be familiar with. Among the texts he covers are:

"Selected Materials: The Seminal Period"

[edit]

Lewis refers to the seminal period as a transitional stage stretching from around 205 to 533 A.D. He spends some time discussing the pagans and Christians of this time, and notes that both were monotheists.[5]

As with the Classical period, he provides summaries of various texts, including:

He also mentions Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae and Vincent of Beauvais' Speculum Majus: "They are not, like those I have been describing, contributors to the Model, but they sometimes supply the handiest evidence as to what it was. Both are encyclopaedists."[5]

"The Heavens"

[edit]

"In medieval science the fundamental concept was that of certain sympathies, antipathies, and strivings inherent in the matter itself. Everything has its right place, its home, the region that suits it, and, if not forcibly restrained, moves thither by a sort of homing instinct", a "kindly enclyning" to their '"kindly stede".[6]

In his exploration of the Heavens, Lewis works to explain much of the basics of medieval cosmology. He begins by explaining the phenomenon of "kindly enclyning": everything returns to the place from which it is drawn. Lewis goes on to answer the question that may arise in response to "kindly enclyning" and that is: "[Did] medieval thinkers really believe that what we now call inanimate objects [possess] sentient and purposive [qualities]"? The answer was "in general", no. Lewis says "in general" because "they attributed life and even intelligence to one privileged class of objects (the stars)...But full blown Panpsychism ... was not held by anyone before Camponella (1568–1639)". In support, Lewis describes the "four grades of terrestrial reality: mere existence (as in stones), existence with growth (as in vegetables), existence and growth with sensation (as in beasts), and all these with reason (as in men)". According to Lewis, "To talk as if inanimate bodies had a homing instinct is to bring them no nearer to us than pigeons; to talk as if they could 'obey' laws is to treat them like men and even like citizens".[7] In the medieval conception, everything was made up of the Four Contraries: hot, cold, moist, and dry. These combine to give us the Four Elements: "The union of hot and dry becomes fire; that of hot and moist, air; of cold and moist, water; of cold and dry, earth."[8] There is also a fifth element, aether, that humans do not experience. In the sublunary world, all the elements have sorted themselves out: "Earth, the heaviest, has gathered itself together at the centre. On it lies the lighter water; above that, the still lighter air. Fire, the lightest of all, whenever it was free, has flown up to the circumference of Nature and forms a sphere just below the orbit of the Moon."[8]

He then briefly summarizes the Ptolemaic universe: "The central spherical Earth is surrounded by a series of hollow and transparent globes ... These are the 'spheres', 'heavens' ... Fixed in each of the first seven spheres is one luminous body. Starting from Earth, the order is the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn; the 'seven planets'. Beyond the sphere of Saturn is the Stellatum, to which belong all the stars that we still call 'fixed' because their positions to one another are ... invariable. Beyond the Stellatum there is a sphere called the First Moveable or Primum Mobile ... its existence was inferred to account for the motions of the others."[9]

All motion moved in order from the top to the bottom: from God to the Primum Mobile to the Stellatum to each lower sphere. The spheres also transmitted Influences to the Earth. Here, Lewis takes up the question of astrology in the Middle Ages. He notes that within the Medieval mind the universe was finite, that it was of a perfect spherical shape containing within itself an ordered variety. Lewis states that while a modern mind might gaze into the sky and interpret vast nothingness, a person living within the Middle Ages would be able to admire it as one might admire grand architecture. He concludes that while modern astronomy "may arouse terror, or bewilderment, or vague reverie; the spheres of the old present us with an object in which the mind can rest, overwhelming in its greatness but satisfying in its harmony."[10] He asserts that these observations reveal a key difference between the present and past, that the modern conception of the universe is romantic while the Medieval conception classical. He also goes on to discuss the strange persistence of certain pagan ideas, such as the deification of the planets. He talks about each's influence, metals, and character.

"The Longaevi"

[edit]

The Longaevi, or "long-livers", are those creatures which might be called "fairies." Lewis gave them their own chapter because "their place of residence is ambiguous between air and Earth."[11] That is to say, he really couldn't find another section in the book that they'd fit into, so he just gave them their own place. Lewis sees the word fairies as "tarnished by pantomime and bad children's books with worse illustrations."[12] Lewis writes of the various creatures in the Middle Ages: fearsome, fair, and the separate beings known as the High Fairies. He then shares four theories or attempts to fit them into the Model:

  1. They could be a third species, distinct from angels and men.
  2. They are angels who have been "demoted", so to speak
  3. They are the dead, or at least, a special class of the dead
  4. They are fallen angels (devils)

"Such were the efforts to find a socket into which the Fairies would fit. No agreement was achieved. As long as the Fairies remained at all they remained evasive."[13]

"Earth and Her Inhabitants"

[edit]

In this penultimate chapter, Lewis talks about various facets of Earth, and how they fit into the Model.

The Earth

[edit]

Everything below the moon is mutable and subject to the influences of the spheres. While the other planets have Intelligences (deities) associated with them, the Earth was not believed to have one since she did not move and so did not require guidance. Dante was the first to suggest an Intelligence for her: Fortune. "Fortune, to be sure does not steer the Earth through an orbit; she fulfills the office of an Intelligence in the mode proper for a stationary globe."[14]

Despite popular modern conception, the people of the Middle Ages were quite aware that the Earth was spherical. Lewis believes that the misconception may arise from the mappemounde, which represent the Earth as a circle or disc.[15] The purpose of these maps was more romantic than practical, and was not meant to serve the practical purposes of navigation.

Beasts

[edit]

In regards to the knowledge of zoology as it appears in the bestiary tradition, Lewis argues that "as there was a practical geography which had nothing to do with the mappemounde, so there was a practical zoology that had nothing to do with the Bestiaries."[16] Lewis sees the bestiaries as an example of encyclopaedic pulling from auctores that he sees as characteristic of the Middle Ages. The focus was on the collection and on the moralitas the animals provided.

The Human Soul

[edit]

Speaking of man, Lewis writes: "Man is a rational animal, and therefore a composite being, partly akin to the angels who are rational but ... not animal, and partly akin to the beasts which are animal but not rational. This gives us one of the senses in which he is the 'little world' or microcosm. Every mode of being in the whole universe contributes to him; he is a cross-section of being."[17] The soul of such a creature is likewise a cross-section. There are three kinds of Souls: the Vegetable Soul, the Sensitive Soul, and the Rational Soul. To explain, Lewis writes:

"The powers of Vegetable Soul are nutrition, growth, and propagation. It alone is present in plants. Sensitive Soul, which we find in animals, has these powers but has sentience in addition. ... Rational Soul similarly includes Vegetable and Sensitive, and adds reason."[17]

Rational Soul

[edit]

The Rational soul is the third level above the Vegetable and Sensitive Soul. The Vegetable Soul is present in plants and gives the powers of nutrition, growth, and propagation. The Sensitive Soul gives beasts these and the addition of sentience. So we see in the Rational Soul in man, all of the previous abilities with the addition of reason. In other words, man possesses all of the powers of all three soul types or, "though misleadingly", three souls.[18] The Rational Soul exercises two faculties: Intellectus and Ratio. Lewis characterizes the difference thus: "We are enjoying intellectus when we 'just see' a self-evident truth; we are exercising ratio when we proceed step by step to prove a truth which is not self-evident."[19]

Sensitive and Vegetable Soul

[edit]

In the Sensitive Soul, Lewis distinguishes ten Senses or Wits, five "inward" and five "outward". Sometimes the outward are simply called "senses" and the inward "wits". The five outward are what are now known as the Five Senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. The inward are memory, estimation, imagination, phantasy, and common wit (or common sense).[20]

"There is no need to write a separate section on the Vegetable Soul," Lewis writes. "It is responsible for all the unconscious, involuntary processes in our organism: for growth, secretion, nutrition, and reproduction."[21]

Soul and Body

[edit]

Lewis points out two ways in which the problem of the relationship between soul and body would have presented itself to medieval thinkers. First, "How can the soul, conceived as an immaterial substance, act on matter at all?" and second, "'It is not possible to passe from one extreme to another but by a meane.'" He suggests that these considerations led the thinkers to posit "a tertium quid ... [a] phantom liaison-officer between body and soul' [which] was called Spirit or ... (more often) the spirits." These spirits were supposedly material enough to act on the body and "fine and attenuated" enough to be acted upon by the immaterial soul.[22] Lewis adds, "This doctrine of the spirits seems to me the least reputable feature in the Medieval Model. If the tertium quid is matter at all (what have density and rarity to do with it?) both ends of the bridge rest on one side of the chasm; if not, both rest on the other."[23]

The Human Body

[edit]

The four contraries, which in the world come together to form elements, combine within the body to create the Humours. The predominance of specific Humours creates specific temperaments: Sanguine, Choleric, Melancholy, and Phlegmatic. "The proportion in which the Humours are blended differs from one man to another and constitutes his complexio or temperamentum, his combination or mixture."[24]

Man is classified into these four categories, based on which temperament is most dominant in him. There is the Sanguine complexion, the best of the four. "The Sanguine man's anger is easily roused but shortlived; he is a trifle peppery, but not sullen or vindictive."[25] Second, there is the Choleric man. "Like the Sanguine, he is easily moved to anger... ...But, unlike the Sanguine, the Choleric are vindictive."[26] Third, there is the Melancholy. "Today I think we should describe the Melancholy as neurotic. I mean, the Melancholy man of the Middle Ages."[27] Finally, there is the Phlegmatic, which Lewis considered to be the worst of the four. "The phlegmatic boy or girl, fat, pale, sluggish, dull, is the despair of parents and teachers; by others, either made a butt or simply unnoticed."[28]

The Human Past

[edit]

"Medieval historians ... are a mixed collection. Some of them...have the scientific approach and are critical of their sources."[29] But it is not the accuracy we are after. Rather, it is "the picture of the past".[29] In the Middle Ages, then, the purpose of recording history, or as we know today the term "historiography," was "to entertain our imagination, to gratify our curiosity, and to discharge a debt we owe our ancestors".[30]

"Historically as well as cosmically, medieval man stood at the foot of a stairway: looking up, he felt delighted. The backward, like the upward, glance exhilarated him with a majestic spectacle, and humility was rewarded with the pleasure of admiration."[31]

The Seven Liberal Arts

[edit]

The Seven Liberal Arts are Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, and Astronomy.[32] Lewis goes on to write in more detail concerning each art, describing exactly how and why it was so important for a medieval education. "The first three constitute the Trivium or threefold way" and as such are connected to one another in some form. For example, Grammar and Dialectic are a progression. "Having learned from Grammar how to talk, we must learn from Dialectic how to talk sense, argue, to prove and disprove. Rhetoric, prior to the medieval period was "not so much the loveliest as the most practical of the arts. By the middle ages, it has become literary...There is no antithesis, indeed no distinction, between Rhetoric and Poetry".[33]

The Influence of the Model

[edit]

Lewis concludes by highlighting the impact the Model had on the literature and art of the era. "Poets and other artists depicted these things because their minds loved to dwell on them. Other ages have not had a Model so universally accepted as theirs, so imaginable and so satisfying to the imagination."[34]

Selected reviews

[edit]

Most reviews of the book were positive:

  • "Wise, illuminating, companionable, it may well come to be seen as Lewis’s best book." The Observer[2]
  • "the final memorial to the work of a great scholar and teacher and a wise and noble mind."[2]

However, some reviewers have noted Lewis' "tendency to oversimplify...and to overcategorize".[35]

See also

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

The Discarded Image

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature is a posthumously published work by the British scholar and author (1898–1963), released in 1964 by . Based on a series of Lewis's Oxford lectures, the book provides a detailed reconstruction of the medieval "Model" of the —a harmonious, hierarchical synthesis of classical philosophy, , and empirical observations that shaped European thought from roughly the 12th to the 16th centuries. This Model envisioned a finite cosmos with at its center, encircled by concentric (from the to the Primum Mobile) animated by divine intelligences, planetary influences, and mythical beings known as the longaevi (such as fairies), all integrated into a bookish, systematic worldview that contrasted sharply with modern scientific paradigms. Lewis's purpose in The Discarded Image is to serve as an accessible handbook for readers of medieval and , such as the works of Dante, Chaucer, and Spenser, by immersing them in the cultural and intellectual assumptions of the era without requiring constant recourse to footnotes or secondary sources. Drawing on primary texts from classical authors like and , transitional figures such as and , and medieval authorities, the book traces the Model's evolution across chapters on its foundational materials, the structure of the heavens, the nature of earthly inhabitants (including human psychology via the tripartite : rational, sensitive, and ), and the role of the seven liberal arts (, , logic, arithmetic, , , and astronomy). He emphasizes the medieval imagination's delight in this ordered yet splendid cosmos, where was a mutable periphery "outside the city wall" of the stars, influenced by Fortune and populated by beasts described in bestiaries, while highlighting the Model's provisional status even to its creators. The work critiques modern misconceptions of the as superstitious or primitive, instead portraying the Model as a "supreme medieval " that embedded within a vivid, coherent , fostering themes of , aesthetic wonder, and divine purpose. In its , Lewis reflects on the Model's discard—not merely due to Copernican astronomy but a broader shift in the European —yet praises its enduring splendor and sobriety, urging contemporary readers to appreciate its emotional without condescension. Scholarly reception has lauded the book for its erudition, clarity, and inspirational value in teaching and research, positioning it as a cornerstone for understanding how medieval cosmology influenced artistic expression and .

Publication and Background

Publication Details

The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature was published posthumously in 1964 by Cambridge University Press. The book spans 231 pages and appeared in English as Lewis's final work, following his death from kidney failure on November 22, 1963. Compiled from Lewis's extensive notes, the volume originated from a course of lectures he delivered more than once at , written at Magdalene College in July 1962. Intended as an accessible introduction to medieval and , it draws on his scholarly expertise in these fields, honed over decades at and . Upon release, the book received acclaim as a capstone to Lewis's oeuvre, bridging his popular fiction—such as —with his rigorous academic contributions, and was hailed as "the final memorial to the work of a great scholar and teacher and a wise and noble mind."

C.S. Lewis's Academic Context

Clive Staples Lewis, commonly known as C.S. Lewis, was a prominent British scholar whose academic career centered on medieval and Renaissance literature. In 1954, he resigned his fellowship at Magdalen College, Oxford, to accept the newly established Chair of Medieval and Renaissance Literature at Magdalene College, Cambridge University, a position created specifically for him. This appointment, which he held until his death in 1963, allowed Lewis to deepen his exploration of historical worldviews, particularly the medieval synthesis of cosmology, theology, and literature that informed his later works, including The Discarded Image. Lewis's expertise in medieval studies was evident in his earlier scholarly publications, which laid the groundwork for his analysis of pre-modern cosmologies. His 1936 book The Allegory of Love: A Study in Medieval Tradition examines the development of and allegorical poetry from the through the , highlighting how medieval authors integrated philosophical and imaginative elements into their works. Similarly, English Literature in the Sixteenth Century, Excluding Drama, published in 1954 as part of the Oxford History of English Literature series, traces the transition from medieval to thought, including discussions of cosmological shifts and the enduring influence of medieval models on literary expression. These texts demonstrate Lewis's profound engagement with medieval cosmology as a cohesive intellectual framework rather than isolated doctrines. Central to Lewis's approach was his method of imaginative reconstruction, which sought to recreate the mindset of historical figures by suspending modern assumptions and entering their worldview through empathetic engagement with primary sources. This technique, rooted in his broader scholarly practice, enabled him to convey the coherence and vitality of medieval thought without imposing contemporary biases. While Lewis's Christian apologetics, seen in works like Mere Christianity (1952), informed his appreciation for integrated worldviews, The Discarded Image employs this method in a largely secular academic tone, focusing on literary and philosophical reconstruction rather than explicit theological advocacy.

Overview and Themes

Purpose and Structure of the Book

C.S. Lewis's The Discarded Image serves as an introduction to the medieval and worldview, aimed primarily at students and general readers engaging with from those periods, to help them grasp the "Model"—the integrated medieval cosmology—as a once-coherent but now discarded image of reality that shaped artistic expression. The book seeks to provide a unified historical and cultural backdrop, presenting the medieval synthesis of , , and history as a harmonious mental framework rather than a fragmented or superstitious relic, thereby enabling better appreciation of works by authors like Dante, Chaucer, and Spenser without requiring consultation of numerous ancillary sources. Lewis intended to counter modern misconceptions that portray medieval thought as primitive or irrational, instead highlighting its rational consistency and imaginative depth within its own premises. The structure of the book progresses logically from foundational context to detailed exposition and application, beginning with an overview of the medieval intellectual situation and initial reservations about approaching it from a modern perspective. It then examines selected source materials from classical and seminal periods, such as works by , , and , to trace the origins of key ideas. Subsequent sections delve into components of the Model, including the heavens and their celestial hierarchy, the longaevi (supernatural beings), and Earth with its inhabitants, encompassing discussions of , the , and the liberal arts. The work concludes by exploring the Model's broader influence on literature and thought, followed by an epilogue, thus guiding readers from historical foundations through the system's intricacies to its cultural legacy. This organization reflects material drawn from Lewis's lectures at Cambridge University, adapted into a cohesive for broader accessibility.

Central Concept: The Medieval Model of the Universe

The "Discarded Image," as articulated by in his work, refers to the Ptolemaic-Aristotelian framework that formed the medieval understanding of cosmology, characterized by a geocentric structured around a series of concentric crystalline spheres. This model positioned immovably at the center, encircled by transparent spheres bearing the , Mercury, , the Sun, Mars, , Saturn, the , and the outermost Primum Mobile, all influenced by , Ptolemaic astronomy, and . Aristotle's division of the into a mutable sublunary realm below the and an eternal celestial domain above provided the philosophical foundation, while Ptolemy's refinements accounted for observed planetary irregularities, and infused the entire structure with a sense of divine purpose and order. Central to this model were several defining features that underscored its mechanistic elegance within medieval thought. Earth's centrality rendered it the lowest and least perfect point in the , a stationary "dregs" of creation from which the ascending spheres radiated . Planetary motions were explained through epicycles—smaller circular orbits superimposed on the larger deferents of the spheres—allowing the model to reconcile apparent retrograde movements with uniform , deemed the most noble path in Aristotelian terms. The Primum Mobile, the swiftest and outermost sphere, imparted daily to the entire , driven by a Prime Mover whose influence propagated inward through love and desire, ensuring the cosmos's ceaseless harmony. This framework achieved a profound holistic integration of , , and , presenting the not as a mere mechanical aggregate but as a purposeful, hierarchical reflecting God's rational . Each was guided by an , maintaining order from the contingent and changeable earthly realm to the immutable heavens, where all elements conspired toward divine ends. For medieval minds, it offered a complete and satisfying account of reality, encompassing not only physical phenomena but also metaphysical and spiritual truths in a unified vision. In contrast to modern , which views the model through the lens of empirical refutation and provisional hypotheses, Lewis emphasizes that it was discarded not as superstition or error but as an outdated yet internally coherent explanation supplanted by simpler, more predictive tools like . While acknowledging its imaginative appeal, Lewis expresses reservations about over-romanticizing the model, noting its provisional nature even in medieval eyes and certain theological tensions.

Synopsis of Key Chapters

The Medieval Situation and Reservations

In the opening chapter of The Discarded Image, delineates the medieval intellectual landscape by characterizing it as a comprehensive "Model" that unified disparate domains of into a singular, harmonious framework. This Model encompassed , , and , forming "the whole organisation of their , , and into a single, complex, harmonious mental Model of the Universe," which medieval thinkers endeavored to construct without internal contradictions. Unlike the modern perspective, which Lewis describes as fragmented and specialized, the medieval approach sought total integration, treating the cosmos as a coherent whole where every element interlocked systematically. Central to this was the of Plenitude, embodying the in the fullness of creation, where the brimmed with life and variety, leaving no region void or unoccupied. Lewis underscores how this reflected a profound of cosmic richness, aligning with the medieval that divine order filled all abundantly. He contrasts this holistic plenitude with contemporary tendencies toward compartmentalization, noting that the medieval Model provided a unified lens for interpreting reality, albeit one reliant heavily on authoritative texts rather than empirical exploration. Lewis approaches this reconstruction with deliberate reservations, cautioning against anachronistic evaluations that impose modern standards on medieval thought. He acknowledges the era's significant knowledge gaps, such as limited understanding of remote geographies, ancient histories, and natural phenomena, which medieval scholars filled through and rather than direct . To counter idealization, Lewis warns readers not to romanticize the period as flawless or superior, emphasizing instead its systematic rigor and the human effort to build an all-encompassing system amid inevitable limitations. He advocates an open-minded engagement with the sources, free from bias, to appreciate the medieval mindset on its own terms. Throughout the chapter, Lewis conveys a sense of intellectual delight in grasping these historical perspectives, describing it as a "joy" derived from admiration for their coherence and artistry, without implying endorsement of their conclusions. This empathetic exploration invites readers to experience the thrill of historical immersion, fostering humility and wonder toward the medieval Model's enduring allure.

Source Materials: Classical and Seminal Periods

In The Discarded Image, C.S. Lewis examines the foundational texts from the classical period that provided the raw materials for the medieval Model of the universe, emphasizing their role in shaping cosmological and natural philosophical concepts. Aristotle's physics formed a cornerstone, positing a sublunary realm composed of four elements—earth, water, air, and fire—each seeking its natural place, with heavier elements tending downward and lighter ones upward. Beyond the Moon, Aristotle described a celestial region made of aether, an incorruptible fifth element forming eternal, concentric transparent spheres that carried the planets and fixed stars, each moved by divine intelligences in perfect circular motion. This hierarchical structure influenced medieval thinkers by integrating empirical observation with metaphysical order, portraying the cosmos as a purposeful, graduated system from the mutable earthly sphere to the divine heavens. Plato's Timaeus contributed a mythic and for creation, depicting a benevolent craftsman () shaping the universe from chaotic matter into an ordered whole, with the four elements derived from geometric solids and the celestial bodies as living gods or animals. Lewis highlights how this dialogue introduced ideas of a pre-existent soul and a triadic structure of reality (intelligible, mathematical, and sensible realms), which resonated in medieval despite the text's incomplete availability in Latin. Ptolemy's , a comprehensive astronomical treatise from the second century CE, supplied the mathematical and observational backbone, detailing a geocentric model with nested spheres for the seven planets, the , and the outermost primum mobile, all calibrated to predict celestial motions accurately. These works collectively offered the medievals a blend of physics, metaphysics, and astronomy, transmitted primarily through intermediaries and Latin translations, forming the intellectual scaffold for later syntheses. Transitioning to the seminal period, roughly from the third to sixth centuries CE, Lewis identifies key intermediaries who bridged classical pagan thought with emerging Christian doctrine, preserving and adapting these ideas for the Latin West. Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy (c. 524 CE) stands as a pivotal text, weaving Stoic, Platonic, and Aristotelian elements into a dialogue on providence, fate, and human free will, where Fortune represents a terrestrial intelligence governing sublunary changes, while higher powers ensure cosmic harmony. As one of the last major works in Latin before the early Middle Ages, it consoled through philosophy rather than explicit Christianity, influencing figures like King Alfred and Chaucer through its widespread translations and commentaries. Macrobius's commentary on Cicero's Somnium Scipionis (c. 400 CE) further mediated classical cosmology, elaborating on the five climatic zones of Earth, dream classifications, and Neoplatonic hierarchies of virtues and gods, thereby embedding pagan astronomy and ethics into a framework amenable to Christian adaptation. Chalcidius's partial translation and commentary on Plato's Timaeus (fourth century CE) introduced essential Platonic concepts to the West, including of plenitude (a fully populated ) and the divine Triad, while explaining elemental transformations and the soul's role in the universe. Lewis notes that Chalcidius's work, stopping midway through the , nonetheless profoundly shaped medieval interpretations of creation and matter. These seminal texts were transmitted via monastic scriptoria and efforts, where scholars like and copied and glossed them, adapting pagan into monotheistic hierarchies by aligning classical intelligences with Christian angels. The intellectual backbone of the medieval Model emerged from this selective transmission in the Latin West, where Arabic translations (e.g., of and via Gerard of in the twelfth century) and patristic integrations (e.g., by and ) reconciled classical naturalism with biblical revelation. Encyclopedias like Vincent of Beauvais's Speculum Maius (thirteenth century) synthesized these sources, ensuring their endurance as the "discarded image" that once unified medieval thought. In these heavens, as briefly described, the spheres represented a chain of being from elemental chaos to divine unity.

The Heavens and Celestial Hierarchy

In The Discarded Image, describes the medieval cosmos as a finite, geocentric structure comprising a series of concentric spheres, with at the center and the heavens extending outward in a meticulously ordered . The seven planetary spheres—, Mercury, , the Sun, Mars, , and Saturn—encircle the , with the 's sphere demarcating the corruptible, changeable sublunary realm below from the eternal, incorruptible translunary realm above. This is followed by the sphere of the (known as the Stellatum), the Primum Mobile as the outermost physical sphere imparting rotational motion to all below it, and finally , a supercelestial domain of pure light and divine presence. This Ptolemaic framework, adapted and Christianized in the medieval period, envisioned the heavens not as empty voids but as a living, purposeful system. Each celestial sphere is animated by intelligences, identified as angelic beings or orders of angels, who impart motion to their respective orbs out of an innate intellectual love directed toward God. These intelligences, drawing from Neoplatonic and Dionysian traditions, ensure the harmonious revolution of the spheres, with the Primum Mobile's diurnal rotation cascading downward through the hierarchy to govern the apparent motions of stars and planets. Lewis emphasizes that this motion arises not from impersonal mechanical laws but from a voluntary, loving obedience, reflecting the medieval integration of theology and cosmology. The heavens exert tangible influences on earthly affairs, which medieval thinkers regarded as a natural science rather than superstitious , with planetary positions affecting human temperaments, weather, and events through physical emanations mediated by the air. For instance, Saturn was associated with melancholy and restraint, while Mars incited strife and boldness, their combined aspects determining outcomes like the rise and fall of empires under a providential "rough justice of Fortune." This astrological , endorsed by authorities like Chalcidius, posited that "the diverse and multiple motion of is the real source of all the effects that now come to pass," though the Church rejected any deterministic or idolatrous interpretations in favor of divine sovereignty. Complementing these influences is the concept of the musica mundana or music of the spheres, where the spheres' revolutions produce inaudible harmonies audible only to the spiritually attuned, symbolizing the cosmos's underlying order and Pythagorean roots elaborated by . Lewis contrasts this medieval vision of the heavens with the modern one, portraying the former as an object of profound and contemplative satisfaction: a vast yet contained system "overwhelming in its greatness but satisfying in its harmony," evoking restful delight in its eternal translunary . In contrast, the contemporary view of infinite, induces terror or indifference, as in Pascal's evocation of "the of these infinite spaces," stripping the of its purposeful fullness and leaving humanity in a of isolation. This ordered celestial hierarchy, for the medievals, underscored a alive with divine intention, where every motion contributed to a grand, harmonious whole.

The Longaevi and Otherworldly Beings

In The Discarded Image, C.S. Lewis describes the longaevi as a category of ancient, neutral beings that occupy an intermediary position between angels and humans in the medieval cosmological model. These entities, often equated with fairies or elves, are portrayed as spiritual, rational, and typically invisible inhabitants of the natural world, neither inherently good nor evil by nature. Lewis draws their origins from classical concepts of daimons—intermediary spirits in Greco-Roman philosophy—and from folklore traditions, synthesizing them into the medieval worldview without imposing strict theological classifications. For instance, he references Martianus Capella's depiction of longaevi dancing in remote earthly locales like woods and rivers, emphasizing their ancient, enduring presence. The hierarchy of these otherworldly beings reflects the broader medieval structure of the universe, with angels residing in the higher as pure intellects aligned with divine order, and demons confined to lower, chaotic regions as fallen entities. The longaevi, by contrast, dwell in the ambiguous zones of the planetary spheres or the sublunary air—the region between the moon and —adding a layer of wildness and unpredictability to the cosmos without disrupting its overall harmony. Lewis notes their lives as longer than those of humans but finite, often embodied in forms that appear incorporeal, as seen in Bernardus Silvestris's accounts of their innocent, passionate existences in idyllic natural settings. This positioning underscores their role as a "third rational species," bridging the divine and the human while remaining distinct from both. Literary depictions of the longaevi in medieval texts exemplify a seamless blending of pagan and Christian elements, treated without overt moral judgment to evoke wonder rather than doctrine. Pagan figures such as Pans, fauns, nymphs, and silvans from merge with Christian cosmology, appearing in romances and visions as neutral denizens of Faerie. For example, Lewis highlights their presence in works like John Gower's , where they inhabit a populated teeming with ethereal life, and Edmund Spenser's , which portrays fairy realms as extensions of the medieval model. Even in John Milton's writings, echoes of these beings appear as middle powers "between and ," softening the stark dualism of . This integration allowed medieval authors to infuse their narratives with a sense of cosmic fullness, where the longaevi contribute to the enchantment of the world without challenging Christian orthodoxy.

Earth, Inhabitants, and Human Nature

In the medieval model described by Lewis, Earth occupies the central position in the universe as the lowest and densest sphere, universally regarded as spherical by high medieval authors, though its negligibly small size compared to that of the lunar sphere rendered it perceptually flat to its inhabitants. This central Earth, termed the "dregs of the universe," was composed of the four sublunary elements—earth, water, air, and fire—each defined by combinations of the primary qualities: hot, cold, wet, and dry. Fire, hot and dry, occupied the highest sublunary position; air was hot and moist; water, cold and moist; and earth, cold and dry, formed the planet's core. Above these lay the quintessence or aether, unchanging and celestial, marking the boundary beyond which elemental mutability ceased. The sublunary realm, including Earth, remained subject to influences from the heavens, such as celestial movements affecting terrestrial weather and events. The Earth's inhabitants encompassed a diverse array of beasts and monsters chronicled in medieval bestiaries, which served not merely as zoological records but as allegorical tools symbolizing moral virtues and vices. Creatures like the phoenix exemplified and renewal, while dragons often represented destructive sins such as or , drawing from classical sources like Phaedrus to illustrate ethical lessons within a Christian framework. These accounts blended empirical observation with symbolic interpretation, portraying the natural world as a didactic tapestry where even fantastical beings contributed to spiritual edification. Central to the model was the conception of the human body as a microcosm, a miniature replica of the macrocosmic universe, harmoniously reflecting its elemental and qualitative structure. Just as the cosmos comprised four elements balanced by their qualities, the human physique incorporated these through the four humors—choler (hot and dry), blood (hot and moist), phlegm (cold and moist), and melancholy (cold and dry)—which governed temperament and health. This microcosmic correspondence underscored humanity's integral place within the ordered whole, with the body's composition mirroring the sublunary world's mutable nature. Human nature extended beyond the physical to the tripartite soul, a hierarchical structure inherited from Aristotelian and Neoplatonic traditions, animating the microcosm in ascending orders of complexity. The vegetative soul oversaw basic functions of , growth, and , shared with plants; the sensitive soul added perception, locomotion, and appetite, common to animals; and the rational soul, unique to humans, enabled , reason, and moral discernment, elevating mankind as a "." This division positioned humans as composite beings bridging the material and divine, capable of ascending toward celestial perfection through intellectual pursuit. Medieval views of past humanity were preserved in chronicles, which presented history not as a linear decline but as a repository of exemplary tales from a more heroic era, often tracing lineages back millennia—such as Egyptian records spanning 145 generations—to emphasize continuity with ancient splendor. Figures like appeared in these narratives as paragons of knightly virtue, with the chronicles functioning as anecdotal collections for moral instruction and delight rather than rigorous . Even apocryphal stories held value, providing pleasure and ethical insight into and folly. At the foundation of human intellectual life lay the Seven Liberal Arts, an unalterable dividing into the and , revered as a sacred pathway to . The —, , and logic—equipped the mind for eloquent and reasoned discourse, with as the art of speech, for persuasive expression, and logic for dialectical truth-seeking. The —arithmetic, , music, and astronomy—delved into quantitative realities, revealing the mathematical harmonies underlying the , from numerical patterns to celestial motions. Together, these arts formed the indispensable groundwork for all , embodying the medieval conviction in an ordered, knowable accessible through disciplined study.

The Model's Influence on Literature and Thought

In the final chapter of The Discarded Image, C.S. Lewis examines how the medieval Model profoundly shaped literary expression, serving as a foundational framework for poets and prose writers who embodied its cosmological structure in their works. Chaucer's The House of Fame exemplifies this embodiment through its depiction of ascents to celestial spheres, drawing inspiration from Cicero's Somnium Scipionis to blend earthly narratives with cosmic hierarchy, where dreams function as somnia (allegorical truths), visiones (literal pre-visions), or oracula (prophetic declarations). Similarly, Dante's Divine Comedy visualizes the Model as a harmonious, hierarchical cosmos, with celestial dances and triadic structures enhancing the majesty of angels through ordered spheres and intellectual light, as seen in passages like Paradiso XXIX, 144–5, and a spherical Earth governed by Fortune in Inferno VII, 73–96. These works integrate the Model not merely as backdrop but as an integral element driving narrative scope and thematic depth. The Model's influence extended to the medieval imagination by promoting a sense of plenitude that inspired epic literary scope, filling the universe with diverse beings and encouraging expansive narratives filled with digressions and catalogues to reflect its ramifying energy. In Dante's ordered , this manifests as a grand stair from to , while Chaucer's Franklin's Tale employs catalogues to evoke the Model's fullness, fostering works of vast ambition rather than isolated tales. Lewis notes reservations about the Model's eventual decline, particularly with Copernicus's heliocentric shift, which dismantled the geocentric framework and eroded the imaginative richness of the medieval , not through irrefutable facts alone but via a preference for simpler models appealing to human . On a broader level, the Model's inherent cultivated a profound confidence in , viewing the as a "supreme " where "the achieved perfection was already there," in stark contrast to modern born of an infinite, disordered . This ordered plenitude encouraged writers to embrace concrete details and structured narratives, reinforcing a literary grounded in cosmic assurance rather than doubt or abstraction. Lewis underscores that medieval authors like Aquinas recognized the Model's provisional nature, yet its legacy persisted in fostering epic and harmonious expressions until the transition.

Critical Reception and Legacy

Contemporary Reviews

Upon its 1964 publication, The Discarded Image elicited favorable responses from contemporary critics, who lauded C. S. Lewis's ability to convey the medieval model of the with clarity and vivacity. Reviewers emphasized the book's in bridging scholarly depth with broad appeal, making the historical accessible without sacrificing rigor. In The Observer, the work was hailed as "wise, illuminating, companionable; may be best ," capturing its blend of erudition and warmth that invited readers into the medieval . This praise underscored Lewis's skill in presenting a discarded yet richly imagined as both intellectually stimulating and personally resonant. The Times Literary Supplement commended the for its "vivid reconstruction of the medieval mindset," observing that "if the sometimes daunts, it nearly always entrances, and, though it is a for the it is also a for the intelligent layman." Critics broadly acclaimed its accessibility to non-specialists, noting Lewis's engaging style—replete with anecdotes and analogies—that demystified celestial hierarchies and earthly perceptions for general audiences.

Modern Assessments and Enduring Impact

In the , scholars have praised The Discarded Image for its enduring aesthetic and spiritual appeal in depicting the medieval as a harmonious, multi-tiered cosmos infused with divine order and vitality. For instance, analyses highlight how Lewis presents this model as spiritually satisfying, with inherent objective values that contrast sharply with modern and . This appreciation underscores the book's role in evoking the "achieved " of a hierarchical , where and earthly elements reflect transcendent purpose. Critiques of the work, however, have noted occasional tendency to oversimplify complex sources and over-defend the medieval model against modern scientific paradigms, potentially reducing heterogeneous medieval thought into a more unified . Such approaches, while effective for introductory purposes, have been seen as reductive in light of later scholarly emphases on and marginalized voices in . Despite these reservations, the book is widely regarded as essential for interpreting Space Trilogy, where the medieval cosmological framework—featuring living planets governed by spiritual intelligences—directly informs themes of cosmic order, redemption, and the interplay between the material and divine realms. The legacy of The Discarded Image extends to its influence on studies, providing a foundational lens for analyzing mythological cosmologies in works like Lewis's own Chronicles of Narnia and broader genre explorations of hierarchical universes. It bridges medieval scholarship with modern interpretations, drawing on neo-Platonic hierarchies updated through 20th-century philosophy to affirm multi-level realities in . In educational contexts, the book remains a standard text for teaching medieval cosmology, serving as a practical guide in undergraduate surveys of to contextualize authors from Dante to Shakespeare.

References

  1. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/renaissance-news/article/c-s-lewis-the-discarded-image-an-introduction-to-medieval-and-renaissance-literature-new-york-cambridge-university-press-1964-x232-pp-395/0A7C7C716CD4075CDDDFC9488A68D247
  2. https://www.uu.edu/journals/renewingminds/4/rm_issue4_dec2013_bookreview_richardson.pdf
  3. https://www.cambridge.org/us/universitypress/subjects/literature/english-literature-general-interest/discarded-image-introduction-medieval-and-renaissance-literature-1
  4. https://www.britannica.com/biography/C-S-Lewis
  5. https://classicalastrologer.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/c-s-lewis-the-discarded-image.pdf
  6. https://www.cslewis.org/resource/chronocsl/
  7. https://www.cslewis.com/us/about-cs-lewis/
  8. https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/cs-lewis-50-years-after-his-death-a-new-scholarship-will-honour-his-literary-career
  9. https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Allegory_of_Love.html?id=GDoqAAAAYAAJ
  10. https://www.amazon.com/English-Literature-Sixteenth-Century-Excluding/dp/0063222175
  11. https://www.cslewis.com/why-you-need-c-s-lewisshistorical-imagination/
  12. https://www.cslewisinstitute.org/resources/the-importance-of-imagination-for-c-s-lewis-and-for-us/
  13. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/bitstreams/f729c582-caeb-4aab-aa92-ccd0eedbada4/download
  14. https://books.google.com/books?id=WADDM36d3TAC
  15. https://pillars.taylor.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1226&context=inklings_forever
  16. https://www.harpercollins.com/products/the-discarded-image-c-s-lewis
  17. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/10/11/597
  18. https://dc.swosu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1355&context=mythlore
  19. https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1210&context=cslewisjournal
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.