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Mongolian shamanism
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In the pantheon of Mongolian shamanism and Tengrism, tngri (also tengri, tegrí) constitute the highest class of divinities and are attested in sources going back to the 13th century. They are led by different chief deities in different documents and are divided into a number of different groups—including black (terrifying) and white (benevolent), and eastern and western. While there generally seem to be 99 tngri, some documents propose three others (from the north), and while they are generally the highest divinities, some liturgical texts propose an additional group of 33 chief gods alongside the tngri. They were invoked only by the highest shamans and leaders for special occasions; they continue to be venerated especially in black shamanism. Chief among the tngri are Qormusata Tngri and (Khan) Möngke Tngri.

The term tngri is cognate with the Turkic theonym tengri "sky", Mongolian taŋɣaraɣ "oath" and tenger "sky".[1]

Mongolian pantheon

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In Mongolian shamanism, tngri constitute the highest class;[2] they are attested already in the oldest written source in Mongolian, The Secret History of the Mongols.[3] The highest deity, Tngri, is the "supreme god of heaven" and is derived from Tengri, the primary chief deity in the religion of the early Turkic and Mongolic peoples, and also goes by Möngke Tngri ("Eternal Heaven") or Erketü Tngri ("Mighty Heaven"); he rules the 99 tngri as Köke Möngke Tngri ("Blue Eternal Heaven").[4] Associated with him is another chief deity, Qormusata Tngri, described by one scholar as the more active being and compared to the Hindu god of heaven Indra.[5] In addition to the 99 tngri, there are also "seventy-seven levels of Mother Earth" and 33 other gods; the latter, like the tngri, are ruled by Qormusata Tngri.[3]

Origin of the tngri

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Some of the tngri are self-created, a special status, though in later texts some of those tngri were said to have been created by Buddha,[citation needed] a possible influence of Buddhism on Mongolian folk religion. One of those self-created is Khan Möngke Tngri, who created Yesu Hei (the father of Genghis Khan) and the Mother of Fire.[6]

The tngri and their divisions

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Klaus Hesse described the complex spiritual hierarchy in clan-based Mongolian society based on sources that go back to the 13th century. The highest group in the pantheon consisted of 99 tngri (55 of them benevolent or "white" and 44 terrifying or "black"), 77 natigai or "earth-mothers", besides others. The tngri were called upon only by leaders and great shamans and were common to all the clans.[7] Black tngri were invoked only by black shamans "against evil from outside and for securing victory in war".[8]

To complicate matters, there is a further division among the 99 tngri: 44 are from the "eastern side", 55 from the "western" side, and there are three or four more that were occasionally added, sometimes from the "northern" side.[9] And among the eastern and western group, there is a division in how the tngri are supplicated: in both group, the greatest multiple of 10 (40 in the east, 50 in the west) are invoked through prayer, the rest (4 in the east, 5 in the west) through sacrifice.[10]

Walther Heissig lists a large number of further divisions—the tngri are made up of groups including the gods of the four corners, five wind gods, five gods of the entrance and five of the door, five of the horizontal, et cetera. He notes that scholars have found a complete enumeration and description of the 99 to be impossible, and that a full list of names mentioned adds up to more than 99, and that local differences occur due to different local gods being accepted and that later sources indicate the further acceptance of Buddhist deities among the tngri.[11] A group of nine supreme tngri occurs regularly, but they are not always the same, though Qormusta Tengri and Möngke Tngri are always included among the "Nine Great Tingri".[12]

Function

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The tngri function primarily as protectors. Baγatur Tngri, for instance, is a protector of heroes in warfare, Kisaγa Tngri (an equestrian deity, known as Red Kisant Tngri among the Buryats) protects riches and the souls of people, and Ataγa Tngri is the protector of horses.[13] Many of the functions of the tngri are specifically related to the Mongolian way of existence, especially the herding of cattle; different tngri have very specialized functions pertaining to specific animals and aspects of their raising. There are also tngri invoked for hunting and the growing of fruits and grains.[14]

See also

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References

[edit]
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Tngri

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Tngri, also known as , is the supreme god and in the ancient religious traditions of the Turkic and Mongolian peoples, embodying the eternal blue heaven and serving as the ruler of the , controller of destinies, and source of both rewards and punishments. In , the belief system centered on Tngri, this represents the unity of and , functioning as the protector and patron of creation without intermediaries between the divine and humanity. Tngri's worship integrates elements of , , and ancestor veneration, with the god viewed as the all-encompassing power behind nature and cosmic order. Historically, has been central to the spiritual and political life of nomadic societies since at least the BCE, as evidenced in Chinese records of the and later in Orkhon-Yenisei inscriptions from the 6th to 8th centuries CE, where rulers invoked Tngri's mandate to legitimize their as "sons of heaven." In Mongolian contexts, Tngri features prominently in the cosmology of the , influencing figures like , who attributed their successes to Tngri's favor, and persists in modern shamanic practices among Buryat-Mongol groups as a foundational concept of . The deity's portrayal varies slightly across cultures—for instance, Mongolian traditions recognize 99 tngri as a class of high divinities, while Turkic variants emphasize Tngri's monotheistic aspects alongside subordinate spirits like (the underworld god). Despite influences from and , Tngri's core attributes as an omnipotent, unpredictable judge endure in contemporary Tengrist revivals in , including a petition in to recognize it as an official religion.

Etymology and Terminology

Linguistic Origins

The term Tngri, central to ancient Central Asian religious concepts, is reconstructed in Proto-Turkic as teŋri or taŋrï, denoting "" or "." This form appears across early as a designation for the celestial realm, reflecting its foundational role in nomadic cosmologies. The earliest attested form of the term emerges in Chinese records from the late 3rd century BCE, preserved in the Han shu, describing the Xiongnu Empire under Modu Chanyu (r. 209–174 BCE), where it appears as "Cheng-li" (撑犁) in the title Chengli gutu shanyu, interpreted as referring to the sky or heaven. This transcription links directly to the Xiongnu ruler's divine authority, equating Chengli with the heavenly sovereign. Scholars reconstruct this as an early variant of Tengri, tying it to the Turco-Mongolic sky divinity. Linguists propose possible connections between teŋri and Proto-Yeniseian tɨŋgVr-, meaning "high," suggesting the Turkic term arose as a from this Siberian , evoking elevation and the upper realm. Additionally, conceptual parallels exist with the Indo-European sky god Dyeus, the reconstructed daylight-sky , highlighting shared motifs of a supreme celestial figure across Eurasian traditions, though direct etymological ties remain unestablished. Semantically, teŋri evolved from denoting the physical in to embodying a divine , with the "sky" sense likely secondary to its primary association as a or heavenly power. This shift underscores a broader pattern in , where natural phenomena like the heavens acquired anthropomorphic and sacral attributes over time.

Variations in Mongolian and Turkic Languages

In Mongolian, the term for the sky deity is commonly rendered as "Tenger" in Romanized transliteration, corresponding to the Cyrillic script form "Тэнгэр" used in modern Mongolian orthography. This form appears prominently in shamanic texts and oral traditions, where it signifies the eternal sky and its divine essence. In classical Mongolian script derived from Uyghur influences, the word is written as "tngri," reflecting an older phonetic structure that emphasizes nasal consonants and vowel brevity. Across Turkic languages, the term undergoes notable phonetic and orthographic adaptations due to regional vowel harmony, dialectal shifts, and script transitions from runic to Arabic, Latin, and Cyrillic systems. In Old Turkic, as attested in ancient inscriptions, it is spelled "Tengri," preserving the original alveolar nasal and front vowel. Modern variants include Turkish "Tanrı," which features a shift to a more closed vowel and loss of the intervocalic 'g' in pronunciation; Kazakh "Tengri" or Cyrillic "Тәңір," maintaining the nasal 'ŋ' sound; and Tatar "Tengri," close to the ancient form but adapted to Kipchak dialect influences. These changes highlight the term's resilience amid linguistic divergence while retaining core semantic ties to the sky. Regional expressions among Mongolic groups add further nuance, such as in Buryat Mongolian, where "Tenger Etseg" explicitly translates to "Sky Father," underscoring paternal attributes in ritual invocations. Script systems play a key role in these variations; for instance, the adoption of Cyrillic in post-Soviet Mongolian and Kazakh contexts standardized "Тэнгэр" and "Тәңір," respectively, facilitating modern literacy while echoing phonetic roots from pre-modern eras.

Historical Context

Early Attestations

The earliest direct attestations of (Tengri) as a named appear in written records from the BCE, specifically around 209 BCE in Chinese accounts of the , with no confirmed pre-3rd century BCE evidence for the specific term, though indirect hints of sky god worship exist in earlier Central Asian nomadic cults, such as those among the described by as venerating a supreme equated to . In these Chinese annals, the term appears as "Cheng-li" (撑犁) in the title of the Xiongnu chanyus, starting with Modu Chanyu in 209 BCE, interpreted as deriving from Tngri, the sky god overseeing fate and order. The Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) by Sima Qian depicts the Xiongnu performing rituals to heaven (tian) on mountain tops, sacrificing horses and cattle to invoke protection and prosperity, suggesting an early form of Tngri veneration integrated into their shamanic practices. This sky cult is portrayed as central to Xiongnu leadership legitimacy, with chieftains claiming divine mandate from the heavens. By the 6th to 9th centuries CE, Tngri had solidified as the national deity of the Göktürk khaganate, the first Turkic empire, where rulers invoked the god as supreme protector and granter of sovereignty. The Orkhon inscriptions, erected in the early 8th century CE in Mongolia's Orkhon Valley to commemorate rulers like Bilge Khagan and Kul Tigin, repeatedly call upon Tngri as the eternal blue sky (Kök Tengri) who bestows fortune (küç), guides military victories, and safeguards the Turkic people against enemies. These runic texts, the oldest surviving Turkic writings, emphasize Tngri's role in elevating khagans to power, as in phrases like "Tengri made me ruler over the Turkish people," underscoring the deity's position as the ultimate arbiter of imperial destiny.

Evolution in Shamanic Traditions

The concept of evolved as a central tenet of among the and early by the , integrating into shamanic frameworks as the supreme overseeing cosmic order and human affairs. This development reflected the shamanic worldview of steppe nomads, where embodied the eternal blue sky and interacted with ancestral spirits and natural forces through rituals mediated by shamans. By the 8th century, the Uighur adoption of under Muyu in 762 marked a significant decline in overt Tengrist practices among elite circles, as the new supplanted worship in official contexts. However, pre-Manichaean shamanic elements, including of as a celestial , persisted in folk traditions and among non-elite Uighur communities, blending subtly with the dualistic cosmology of . From the 13th century onward, concepts underwent with in following Qubilai Khan's conversion in 1264, where the was reinterpreted as compatible with Buddhist heavenly realms and integrated into the pantheon as a protective celestial force. This fusion allowed shamanic invocations of to coexist with , preserving Tengrist elements within a broader cosmological hierarchy during the and beyond. Ethnographic records from the 19th and 20th centuries among the and Altaians hint at a revival of Tngri-related shamanic traditions, as researchers documented persistent and ancestral cults amid Russian imperial influences and Soviet suppression. These accounts, including studies of Buryat epic heroism and Altaian restoration efforts, reveal Tngri's role in ethnic identity formation, bridging pre-Buddhist with modern cultural resurgence.

Role in the Pantheon

Supreme Deity Status

In Mongolian shamanic traditions, Tngri is revered as the paramount deity, embodying the eternal and omnipotent sky father known as Köke Möngke Tngri, or the Eternal Blue Heaven, which underscores its timeless and all-encompassing dominion over the cosmos. This supreme entity is depicted as the ultimate source of power, governing the fates of individuals and nations with an unpredictable yet authoritative will that transcends earthly concerns. As the creator of the universe and all life forms, Tngri stands hierarchically above subordinate spirits and natural forces, establishing order from primordial chaos and providing the foundational symmetry between heaven and earth. Tngri's role as the national patron crystallized during the , particularly under , where it was invoked in oaths, decrees, and imperial edicts to legitimize conquests and affirm divine mandate, such as in phrases like "by the power of eternal heaven" (möngke tngri-yin küčün-dür). The was believed to have predestined 's rise, ordaining him as the "" and binding the imperial house to its celestial auspices for protection and prosperity. Historical invocations, such as those in of the , highlight Tngri's integral position in state rituals, reinforcing its status as the unifier of Mongol destiny. Unlike anthropomorphic gods in other traditions, Tngri possesses a non-anthropomorphic essence, symbolized by the vast, open or the celestial vault, often associated with the blue expanse, stars, or the summit of Mount Sumeru, without human-like form or personal attributes. This abstract representation emphasizes its impersonal yet omnipresent nature, dwelling beyond human comprehension while exerting influence through natural phenomena and divine will.

Cosmological Framework

In Turko-Mongolian cosmology, the is structured as a tripartite system comprising the upper world, the middle world, and the lower world, with presiding over the upper realm as the embodiment of the eternal blue sky. The upper world represents the divine and spiritual domain, where maintains cosmic order and harmony, while the middle world serves as the earthly plane inhabited by humans and natural life. The lower world, ruled by , constitutes the associated with death, chaos, and the subterranean forces, forming a balanced opposition to 's domain. This tripartite division underscores the interconnectedness of existence, where shamans act as intermediaries to navigate between realms and restore equilibrium. Central to this framework is Tngri's pairing with Etügen Eke, the Mother, who embodies the fertile middle world and ensures balance in creation by complementing Tngri's celestial authority with terrestrial nurturing. Together, they represent the dual forces of sky and earth, fostering the cyclical processes of life, growth, and renewal across the . Tngri, as the supreme , is regarded as the ultimate source of natural phenomena, including weather patterns such as rain and thunder, as well as the progression of seasons that govern the steppes' rhythms. Tngri's influence extends to human destiny through the interpretation of omens and the of sacred animals, which serve as emissaries conveying divine will and guidance from the upper world. Animals like the eagle, , and are revered as totemic symbols of Tngri's oversight, signaling prosperity or warning of imbalance when he withdraws favor. This integration of celestial oversight into earthly affairs reinforces Tngri's role in shaping moral and existential outcomes within the broader cosmic order.

Divisions and Hierarchy

The 99 Tngri

In , the 99 tngri represent a collective of celestial spirits forming the highest tier of the pantheon, subordinate to the supreme deity Köke Möngke Tngri, the Eternal Blue Heaven. These sky spirits serve as intermediaries in the cosmological order, channeling the will of the supreme Tngri to influence earthly affairs through protective and regulatory functions tied to and human endeavors. They are invoked in rituals by great shamans and clan leaders to ensure harmony between the heavens and the terrestrial realm, embodying the dynamic forces of the upper world. The group comprises 99 tngri in total, divided into 55 benevolent ones associated with the western direction and 44 malevolent ones linked to the east, reflecting a balanced yet hierarchical cosmic structure. Positioned in the upper world, they hold authority above the 77 natigai, or earth mothers, who govern local terrestrial elements such as fertility, flocks, and grains; this placement underscores the tngri's elevated role in overseeing broader celestial and natural equilibria. The natigai, personified collectively as Etügen Eke, complement the tngri but operate in a subordinate capacity within the shamanic worldview. Prominent examples among the 99 tngri include Dayisun Tngri, a embodying protective might against enemies, often depicted as a mounted figure in rituals and linked to historical cults among groups like the Ghahar . Similarly, Sülde Tngri functions as an equestrian spirit animating military standards and symbols of , particularly revered in traditions for safeguarding rulers and clans through sacrificial honors. These figures illustrate the tngri's integral place in the pantheon's supportive framework.

White and Black Distinctions

In Mongolian and Turkic shamanic traditions, the 99 are subdivided into two opposing categories: 55 benevolent white tngri and 44 malevolent black tngri. The white tngri, often positioned in the western sky, embody protective forces linked to , , and good fortune, serving as guardians that aid shamans in rituals and promoting among the faithful. In contrast, the black tngri, associated with the eastern sky, represent destructive influences tied to storms, , and calamity, requiring through invocations to avert harm and secure over adversaries. This dualistic division reflects a broader cosmological balance within the tngri pantheon, where the supreme deity Qormusta Tngri oversees the interplay of these forces to maintain universal harmony. The distinctions extend to shamanic practices, with black shamans primarily invoking the black tngri for defensive and combative purposes, while yellow shamans—emerging from Buddhist-influenced white shamanism—focus on the white tngri, integrating ancestral worship with elements of to foster benevolent outcomes.

Functions and Attributes

Creation and Order

In ancient Turkic cosmology, is revered as the supreme creator who initiated the formation of the world by separating the blue sky above from the below, establishing the fundamental cosmic structure. This act is vividly described in the , where it states: "When the blue sky (and) below the dark (literally: brown) earth was created... between (them) both were created... sons of men (i.e., people)." Tngri's role in maintaining order manifests through oversight of human fate and mortality, as in the inscription: "Time (i.e., fate, timing) distributes ... sons of men are all ." This celestial governance ensures harmony in the . The deity's profound association with the blue sky, known as kök tngri, symbolizes unchanging eternal order and divine vastness, reflecting Tngri's in the .

Justice and Intervention

In Mongol cosmology, Tngri functioned as the supreme overseeing conduct, bestowing , , and protection upon those who adhered to virtuous paths while inflicting punishments such as , defeat, and natural calamities on the wicked or disloyal. This role underscored Tngri's impartial enforcement of ethical order, where divine favor manifested as tangible rewards for leaders who promoted unity and justice among the tribes. For instance, in the Secret History of the Mongols, Tngri's protection is credited for Genghis Khan's narrow escapes from death and his military triumphs, portraying these as direct endorsements of his righteous and the mandate to unify the Mongol peoples. Conversely, the withdrawal of Tngri's mandate signaled severe repercussions, as seen in the downfall of khans who fostered disunity or violated laws, leading to their loss of authority and eventual ruin. Tngri's interventions in human affairs occurred through dramatic natural phenomena and spiritual communications, ensuring adherence to celestial will. Thunderbolts, interpreted as Tngri's heavenly arrows, served as instruments of punishment against malicious forces or evildoers, striking down threats to moral harmony. Guidance often arrived via dreams and visions experienced by shamans or leaders, revealing omens that directed actions toward justice and tribal cohesion, as exemplified in the Secret History where prophetic signs affirmed Genghis Khan's divine backing during pivotal conflicts. Animal forms, such as the wolf revered as an ancestral emblem, occasionally acted as messengers bearing symbolic warnings or affirmations of Tngri's intent. Subordinate tngri frequently served as agents in these enforcements, channeling the supreme deity's directives. Central to Tngri's ethical imperatives were principles of fairness, loyalty to the khan as Tngri's earthly representative, and harmony with nature, which demanded reverence for the earth (Yer-Sub) and prohibitions against its desecration. Obedience to Tngri fostered honesty and sincerity in social relations, while disloyalty invited cosmic imbalance and punishment. These values permeated Mongol society, as illustrated in the Secret History's parable of Alan-Gua, where breaking a twig symbolized the peril of disunity under Tngri's gaze, reinforcing the moral duty to maintain collective loyalty and environmental stewardship for prosperity.

Worship and Cultural Impact

Traditional Rituals

Traditional rituals dedicated to Tngri in Mongolian shamanism centered on reverence for the eternal blue sky, often conducted in open natural settings to facilitate direct communion with the divine. Ceremonies frequently took place on mountaintops or vast plains, where shamans positioned themselves to invoke the sky god without obstruction, emphasizing the purity and vastness of the heavens as a conduit for spiritual connection. These rituals underscored Tngri's role as the supreme celestial force, with participants offering prayers to Qormusta Tngri, the highest deity, to seek protection, fertility, and harmony with the cosmos. Shamans, known as böö, played a central role in mediating with through daily and periodic invocations. Using drums and rhythmic chants, böö would enter states to communicate with the 99 , reciting praises that described the "blue eternal heaven" (kökö mongke ) and beseeching blessings for the community. These invocations often involved sprinkling offerings such as (sigusii jasaqu) or fermented (ariki serjikil) toward the sky, symbolizing sustenance for the celestial entities and reinforcing the reciprocal bond between humans and the divine. Among , such as the ancient and later , worship involved shamanic (kam) rituals including animal sacrifices, often horses or sheep, at or open steppes to honor the sky god and seek favor for hunts, wars, or fertility. These ceremonies, documented in , emphasized 's mandate and included invocations by rulers as "sons of heaven," blending with ancestor . Major events called for more elaborate sacrifices, particularly the offering of horses to honor Tngri's dominion over the steppes and nomadic life. In public ceremonies among 13th- and 14th-century , a was typically selected and ritually slain, with its skin impaled on poles facing the four cardinal directions to propitiate the sky god and ensure prosperity or . This practice, rooted in Turkic-Mongol traditions, extended to funerary rites where horse remains were elevated as direct tributes to , distinguishing them from mere provisions. Seasonal festivals integrated worship into communal celebrations, blending shamanic rites with athletic displays to invoke divine favor. The festival, featuring wrestling, , and , originated in shamanic traditions where these "three manly games" served as rituals to please sky spirits and secure blessings for warriors and herders alike. Performers mimicked sacred animals like the eagle in wrestling grips, channeling Tngri's strength to foster communal unity and cosmic balance during key seasonal transitions.

Modern Revival and Influence

During the Soviet era from the to the 1990s, Tngri worship and associated shamanic practices faced severe suppression in under communist antireligious policies, which banned all forms of as obstacles to modernization and symbols of anti-revolutionary activity. , integral to Tngri veneration, was driven underground, with male practitioners facing intense state scrutiny while female shamans in rural areas continued discreetly due to less perceived threat. Despite these measures, beliefs survived in through oral stories of ancestral spirits and at shrines—sacred stone cairns used for offerings—which persisted as subtle markers of spiritual continuity even under legal prohibition. The fall of Soviet influence in triggered a robust revival of -centered practices, often framed as neo-Tengrism, with movements emphasizing reconnection to native spiritual heritage amid post-communist . Shamanic rituals proliferated rapidly, described as emerging "like mushrooms" in rural provinces and , where new practitioners invoked for healing and guidance. This resurgence has been bolstered by shamanic , enabling international visitors to witness and participate in authentic ceremonies led by hereditary shamans in eastern . Government support, including the restoration of sacred sites and a presidential decree designating Noyon-Uul Mountain as a protected state , has further institutionalized this revival, with annual worship costs exceeding 693 million MNT funded by state, private, and NGO contributions. Neo-Tengrist revivals have also gained traction among Turkic populations in , particularly in and since the , where groups reconstruct ancient rituals through festivals, environmental activism, and cultural associations to counter Islamic dominance and foster . As of 2024, organizations like the Kazakhstan Tengrist movement promote worship via online communities and public ceremonies, blending traditional with modern ecology. Tngri's legacy permeates modern Mongolian , evident in the national flag's vertical blue stripe symbolizing the eternal blue sky under the deity's , a motif rooted in ancestral cosmology. In , authors invoke Tngri to evoke cultural resilience and unity, as seen in narratives blending historical epics with themes of spiritual sovereignty. Environmentally, promotes ethical stewardship by framing nature as an extension of Tngri's order, influencing policies and public discourse on land preservation amid threats to sacred landscapes. In urban centers like , Tngri beliefs exhibit with , producing hybrid "" where practitioners merge animistic invocations of sky spirits with Buddhist healing rites to address modern afflictions. This blending extends to global influences, with neo-Tengrist groups in city-based associations like the Golomt Center adapting rituals for therapeutic and entrepreneurial purposes, fostering a cosmopolitan spirituality that aligns ethnic revival with worldwide esoteric trends.

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  46. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392437330_Revival_of_Tengrism_in_Kazakhstan_as_ancient_belief_of_the_Kazakh_nation_Prospects_and_Challenges
  47. https://digital.lib.washington.edu/bitstreams/73b9856d-ddc6-4d78-b52d-273faa74e3ac/download
  48. https://www.academia.edu/4905001/Visions_of_Temujin_and_the_Rise_of_Genghis_Khan_Contemporary_Perspectives_on_the_Meaning_and_Influence_of_Genghis_Khan_in_Mongolian_Shamanism_Visions_of_Temujin_and_the_Rise_of_Genghis_Khan_Contemporary_Perspectives_on_the_Meaning_and_Influence_of_Genghis_Khan_in_Mongolian_Shamanism
  49. https://thediplomat.com/2022/05/dilemma-of-the-sacred-lands-preserving-mongolias-ovoos/
  50. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233088535_Contemporary_shamanisms_in_Mongolia
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