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Great mandala of the Tôji imperial temple in Kyoto

Buddhism includes a wide array of divine beings that are venerated in various ritual and popular contexts. Initially they included mainly Indian figures such as devas, asuras and yakshas, but later came to include other Asian spirits and local gods (like the Burmese nats and the Japanese kami). They range from enlightened Buddhas to regional spirits adopted by Buddhists or practiced on the margins of the religion.

Buddhists later also came to incorporate aspects from the countries to which it spread. As such, it includes many aspects taken from other mythologies of those cultures.

Buddhas

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A statue-based mandala with each of the five Buddhas facing his specific cardinal direction at Many Treasures Pagoda, Renge-in Tanjō-ji, Japan
Main article: Buddha (title)

A Buddha is a being who is fully awakened and has fully comprehended the Four Noble Truths. In the Theravada tradition, while there is a list of acknowledged past Buddhas, the historical Buddha Sakyamuni is the only Buddha of our current era and is generally not seen as accessible or as existing in some higher plane of existence. The Pali literature of the Theravāda tradition includes tales of twenty-nine Buddhas, which are Sakyamuni and the twenty-eight Buddhas who preceded him.

Mahayana Buddhists venerate numerous Buddhas, more so than the Theravada tradition, including Maitreya and Amitābha, who are seen as beings of great wisdom and power who preside over pure lands that one can travel to after death. Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions also recognize five primary Buddhas:

Each is associated with a different consort, direction, aggregate (or aspect of the personality), emotion, element, color, symbol, and mount.[1] In later, especially tantric sources, each male Buddha is associated with a specific female Buddha (though their names and attributes vary across the various Buddhist sources). Here is one common list of the five female Buddhas (also called prajñās, or vidyas):[2][3]

  • Ākāśadhātvīśvarī ("The Sovereign Lady of the Sphere of Infinite Space"), the prajñā of Vairocana
  • Locanā, the prajñā of Akṣobhya
  • Māmakī ("Mine-maker"), the prajñā of Ratnasambhava
  • Paṇḍāravāsinī ("White Robed One"), the prajñā of Amitabha
  • Tārā ('Star"), sometimes associated with Amoghasiddhi, sometimes Amitabha

In Tibetan Buddhism, several female Buddhas are also recognized, such as Tara, the most popular female Buddha in Tibetan Buddhism, who comes in many forms and colors. Other female Buddha figures include Vajrayogini, Nairatmya, and Kurukullā.

Other Buddhas besides these five include Bhaisajyaguru (the Buddha of medicine) and Nageshvara Raja (the king of the Nāgas).

There is also the idea of the Adi-Buddha, the "first Buddha" to attain Buddhahood. Variously named as Vajradhara, Samantabhadra, Shiva, and Mahavairocana, the first Buddha is also associated with the concept of Dharmakaya and the Ground of all phenomena.

Some historical figures are also seen as Buddhas, such as the Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna (sometimes called the second Buddha) and the figure of Padmasambhava.

Bodhisattvas

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Main article: Bodhisattva
Statue of the Eleven-Headed and Thousand-Armed Guanyin (Shíyīmiàn Guānyīn) with the 28 guardian devas associated with this manifestation at her sides; located at the Guanyin Shrine on Mount Putuo Guanyin Dharma Realm in Zhejiang Province, China
The Buddha with protector Vajrapāni in Greek style resembling Heracles or Zeus, second-century
Nepalese depiction of Manjushri

In Theravada Buddhism, bodhisatta is a term used mainly for Sakyamuni Buddha before his awakening. It is also commonly believed that the future Buddha, Maitreya (Pali: Metteya) currently resides in Tushita Heaven, and this figure is one of the few bodhisattvas who have a prominent place in Theravada.[4][5]

In Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva is any being that has aroused bodhicitta (mind of awakening) and is thus working towards full Buddhahood. Bodhisattvas who are seen as powerful and highly advanced are highly venerated in this tradition.

In India, a list known as the "Eight Close Sons" (Skt. aṣṭa utaputra) became the main set of bodhisattvas of Shakyamuni Buddha's entourage, they are:[6][7]

In Tibetan Buddhism, a Vajrayana Buddhist tradition, the major bodhisattvas are these "eight great bodhisattvas".[8]

The bodhisattva Prajñāpāramitā-devi is a female personification of the perfection of wisdom and the Prajñāpāramitā sutras. She became an important figure, widely depicted in Indian Buddhist art. She is the main female bodhisattva in Indian sources. Other Mahayana sutras also depict female bodhisattvas, such as The Lion's Roar of Śrīmālādevī.[9]

Other male bodhisattvas appearing in Indian sources include Candraprabha, Suryaprabha, Bhaiṣajyasamudgata, Bhaiṣajyarāja, Akṣayamati, and Vajrasattva. There are also other female bodhisattvas like Tara, Ushnishavijaya, Vasudhara and Cundi.

In the East Asian Buddhist traditions, which are mainly Mahayana, major bodhisattvas include many of the above: Guānyīn (Japanese: Kannon), Maitreya (Chinese: Mílè, Jp: Miroku), Samantabhadra (Ch: Pǔxián, Jp: Fugen), Manjushri (Wénshū), Ksitigarbha (Ch: Jìzàng Jp: Jizō), and Akasagarbha. The most popular bodhisattva in the East Asian pantheon is surely Guānyīn (the East Asian form of the Indian Avalokitesvara) who is depicted as female in East Asia, rather than as the Indian male Avalokitesvara. Guanyin is also believed by Buddhists to take on numerous manifestations, among which are several other bodhisattvas such as Cundi and Cintamanicakra.

In addition, Buddhist traditions in different countries have also absorbed native deities into their localized Buddhist pantheon, sometimes as Bodhisattvas. Some examples are Guan Yu in Chinese Buddhism, who is venerated as Sangharama Bodhisattva (Chinese: 伽藍菩薩; Pinyin: Qiélán Púsà) as well as a deity, and Hachiman in Japanese Buddhism, who is venerated as the Bodhisattva Hachiman (Japanese: 八幡大菩薩; Rōmaji: Hachiman Daibosatsu).

Certain historical figures have been considered to be bodhisattvas, like Nagarjuna. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism consider reborn tulkus such as the Dalai Lamas and the Karmapas to be emanations of bodhisattvas. East Asian Buddhist traditions may venerate certain historical figures as bodhisattvas, such as Kukai in the Shingon school.

Protector deities

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In Buddhism, there is a class of deities whose main role is to act as guardians, protectors or general removers of evil. Some of these are unique to Buddhism and others are Indian deities that Buddhism shares with Hinduism.

In Mahayana Buddhism there are numerous "dharma protectors" (S. dharmapāla, T. chos skyong; C. fahu 法護), powerful beings who are defenders of Buddhism and protectors of Buddhists against evil or harm.[10] There are two main types of protectors, mundane worldly protectors (who may be devas or spirits) and supramundane awakened protectors, bodhisattvas or buddhas who appear in a specific form to defend the Dharma.[10] The former includes numerous devas such Brahmā and Indra, as well as local spirits and gods that have been adopted by Buddhism. The latter type include popular wrathful deities like: Yamantaka, Ekajaṭī, Mahākāla, Palden Lhamo, and Hayagrīva.

Guardians of the world

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Vaiśravaṇa (J. Bishamonten) at Tōdai-ji, Japan

The four "guardians of the world" (lokapāla), also known as the Four Heavenly Kings (Cāturmahārāja), are four deities (devas) who protect the four directions of the Sahā world (our world). Each guardian rules over a specific direction and also a class of non-human beings. These guardian deities are found in the earliest Buddhist sources and are shared by Mahayana and Theravada. The four guardians are:[11]

Wisdom King

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The Five Wisdom Kings is the most important grouping of Wisdom Kings (Vidyaraja) in Chinese Esoteric Buddhism.
Main article: Wisdom King

The Wisdom Kings (Sanskrit: Vidyārāja) are beings that are venerated in East Asian Buddhism and in Vajrayana Buddhism. They are often depicted with an aggressive or fierce appearance which symbolizes their power to get rid of negative forces. They are thus often seen as an expression of the Buddha's compassion.

In East Asian Buddhism, The Five Wisdom Kings are often seen as emanations of the Buddhas. These five are:

Other important Wisdom Kings include

Five Protector Goddesses

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The Pañcarakṣā ("Five Protectors") are five protector goddesses which are important in Mahayana Buddhism, the term also refers to their dhāraṇīs.[12][13][14][15]

These five protective dhāraṇī-goddesses are:[12]

  • Mahāpratisarā (known for protection against defilements, disease, and evils),
  • Mahāsahasrapramardinī (for protection against evil spirits),
  • Mahāmāyūrī or vidyārājñī (for protection against snake-poison),
  • Mahāśītavatī (for protection against 'cruel' planets, cruel animals, and poisonous insects), and
  • Mahārakṣā mantrānusāriṇī (for protection against diseases).

Mundane Dharmapalas

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Lakshmi, at the Buddhist complex of Sanchi
Upulvan, a form of Vishnu revered as a guardian deity in Sri Lanka.

In Chinese Buddhism, there is a list of Twenty-Four Protective Deities (Chinese: 二十四諸天; pinyin: Èrshísì Zhūtiān). These are mostly mundane dharmapalas:[16]

  1. Maheśvara (Shiva)
  2. Brahma
  3. Śakra (Indra)
  4. Lakshmi
  5. Sarasvati
  6. Vaiśravaṇa
  7. Virūḍhaka
  8. Dhṛtarāṣṭra
  9. Virūpākṣa
  10. Surya
  11. Chandra
  12. Guhyapāda
  13. Pañcika
  14. Skanda
  15. Pṛthvī
  16. Spirit of the Bodhi Tree
  17. Hārītī
  18. Mārīcī
  19. Sāgara
  20. Yama
  21. Kinnara King
  22. Emperor Zi Wei
  23. Emperor Dongyue
  24. Thunder God

Devas

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Main article: Deva (Buddhism)
Visit of Indra and Brahma to the Buddha, Sanchi Stupa no. 1
A Thai statue of Brahma, who is still venerated by Thai Buddhists as Phra Phrom, a deity of good fortune and protection

The term deva (Sanskrit; Pāli: deva; Tibetan: lha; Chinese: tian 天; Japanese: ten; Korean: cheon) literally means "radiant one" or "shining one" and is commonly translated as "divinity," "heavenly being," or "god." Devas are one of the five (or six, in some traditions) realms of rebirth (gati) within the cycle of existence (saṃsāra).[17] The word deva originates from the Sanskrit root √div, meaning "to shine," and shares an etymological connection with the English word "divinity." Rebirth as a deva is considered a favorable outcome resulting from virtuous deeds (karman) performed in previous lifetimes. While the heavenly realms of devas are regarded as auspicious, they are impermanent and remain part of the cyclic existence of saṃsāra, rather than being eternal heavens.[17] Devas are not all necessarily wise or on the Buddhist path and hence not objects of refuge. They have very long lives which have much less suffering than humans, but are not immortal or immune from suffering. Some devas have no physical form and exist in the formless realms. None of them are creator gods, and they are neither omniscient nor omnipotent.[17]

Buddhist cosmology identifies 27 (alternatively 26 or 28) categories of devas, classified based on their dwelling places (devaloka) within the three realms of existence (trailokya): the sensuous realm (kāmadhātu), the material or form realm (rūpadhātu), and the formless or immaterial realm (ārūpyadhātu).[17] Devas are apparitional beings, appearing fully developed at birth. In the sensuous realm, they retain physical bodies and consume food, while those in higher realms subsist on subtler forms of nourishment, such as sensory contact or mental contemplation.[17] Their existence, while pleasurable, remains impermanent, as they are bound by saṃsāra. Upon rebirth, devas are often aware of their past lives and the virtuous deeds that led to their celestial existence.[17]

Some of the most commonly discussed types of devas in Buddhist scriptures include: the Brahma devas, Trāyastriṃśa devas, gandharvas (celestial musicians), and the Tuṣita devas.[17]

Various Indian devas were part of Indian Buddhism from an early period. Examples include Śakra (known as "lord of the devas", the Buddhist Indra) who rules over the devas of the "Heaven of the Thirty Three" (Trayatrimsa), the four Lokapalas ("guardians of the world"), and goddesses like Lakshmi and Hariti.

With the spread of Buddhism out of India, different cultures also integrated or syncretized local deities into their pantheon of devas. For example, Chinese Buddhism venerates the Twenty-Four Protective Devas, which include both originally Indian deities, such as Mahesvara (Shiva), Sakra (Indra), Brahma, Sarasvati, Laksmi, Marici and Hariti, as well as a few deities integrated from Taoism, such as the Emperor Zi Wei and Leigong. Guan Yu, who is regarded as a god of war in Taoism, is also regarded as both a bodhisattva and a deva.

In Japanese Buddhism, Shinto gods were also syncretized into the pantheon under the honji suijaku theory by being conflated with the Indian deities imported from Buddhism, such as Ugajin and Ōkuninushi.

Yidam

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Chakrasamvara
Main article: Iṣṭha-deva(tā) (Buddhism)

The yidam, or ishta-devata, is a personal meditation deity. The Sanskrit word iṣṭadevatā or iṣṭadevaḥ is defined by V. S. Apte as "a favorite god, one's tutelary deity."[18] Though this term is used in many popular books on Buddhist Tantra, the term işţadevatā has not been attested in any Buddhist tantric text in Sanskrit. The unrelated Tibetan version of the term, possibly of entirely native origin, is yi-dam[19] is said to be a contraction of Tib. yid-kyi-dam-tshig,[20] meaning "samaya of mind"- in other words, the state of being indestructibly bonded with the inherently pure and liberated nature of mind.

The ishta-devata of Hinduism is an aspect of God for personal worship.[21] In Buddhism, a yidam is a manifestation of enlightenment and may take the form of Sambhogakāya Buddhas, tantric deities such as Dakinis, bodhisattvas, Dharma protectors (Dharmapalas) or other historical figures such as past gurus or religious leaders.[20]

Wrathful deities

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Main article: Wrathful deities

In the Buddhist Tantras, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas often manifest in unusual and fierce forms, which are used in tantra as yidams or meditation deities.[22] While some of these deities have a hideous and fierce appearance, they are not personifications of evil or demonic forces. The ferocious appearance of these deities is used to instill fear in evil spirits which threaten the Dharma.[23]

Other beings

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A granite nagaraja (naga king) guardstone from Sri Lanka

Throughout the history of Buddhism, Buddhists have also venerated and relied on numerous other supranormal beings or spirits.

One important class of beings are the yakṣas, nature-spirits, usually benevolent, who are caretakers of the natural treasures hidden in the earth and tree roots.[24] Having been worshiped in India since before the Vedic period, Buddhists in India venerated these deities as local protector spirits. One important Indian yakṣa was Kubera, the spirit of wealth.[25]

Another important class of beings are the nāgas, a serpentine race of beings, often associated with protecting bodies of water. These beings are also associated with the Mahayana sutras and their protection.

In Burma there exists the popular worship of nature spirits called nats which are worshiped alongside of Buddhism.[26]

In Japan, Buddhists have traditionally venerated the local kami deities.

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Buddhist deities

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Buddhist deities encompass a wide array of beings within Buddhist traditions, including enlightened figures like buddhas and bodhisattvas, as well as protective devas and guardians, who serve as objects of devotion, , and ritual but are ultimately subordinate to the path of enlightenment and subject to the laws of karma and impermanence. Unlike a theistic creator , which Buddhism explicitly rejects as incompatible with doctrines like anatta (non-self) and dependent origination, these deities are not omnipotent saviors but manifestations or archetypes aiding practitioners in cultivating and . In early Buddhism, as preserved in Theravada traditions, devas—higher celestial beings from pre-Buddhist Indian cosmology—are acknowledged as existing within samsara, reborn through karma and capable of supporting the , yet they require the Buddha's teachings for their own liberation and hold no ultimate authority. Devas in the form realm (Rūpadhātu) and formless realm (Ārūpyadhātu) abide in meditative states such as the jhānas or formless attainments, achieved through prior practice. Some devas practice the Dharma, listen to teachings, attain stages of enlightenment (e.g., non-returners in the pure abodes who become arahants), and receive meditation guidance. However, their bliss and long lives often reduce motivation to understand suffering and pursue insight. These deities are invoked through rituals, mantras, and visualizations across Buddhist cultures, from the guardian kings in Southeast Asian temples to the thousand-armed Avalokiteshvara in Chinese and , reflecting Buddhism's adaptation to regional cosmologies while maintaining its core nontheistic framework. Their depictions in —serene or fierce—serve pedagogical purposes, guiding devotees toward ethical conduct, , and insight into , without implying worship of independent eternal entities.

Concepts and Context

Definition and Role

In Buddhism, deities are defined as beings possessing extraordinary powers that can either support or obstruct the path to enlightenment, yet they remain fundamentally subordinate to the —the Buddha's teachings—and are not regarded as creators of the universe or eternal souls. These entities encompass a range of figures, from worldly protectors to enlightened manifestations, all bound by the principles of impermanence (anicca) and karma, existing within the cycle of samsara rather than as ultimate authorities. Unlike monotheistic or creator-focused theologies, Buddhist deities do not command worship as ends in themselves but serve as provisional aids in the pursuit of liberation. The roles of Buddhist deities are multifaceted, functioning primarily as protectors of the (the Buddhist community), objects of devotion to accumulate merit, symbolic representations of the enlightened mind, and focal points in meditative practices. For instance, they safeguard practitioners from obstacles and embody qualities like or to guide spiritual development, often invoked through rituals that align with the Dharma's ethical framework. In tantric traditions, deities such as yidams (meditational deities) enable visualization techniques that transform ordinary perception into enlightened , reinforcing the non-theistic emphasis on personal effort over divine intervention. A key distinction from Hindu or Brahmanical deities lies in their lack of ultimate authority; while incorporate figures like or from pre-existing Indian traditions, these are reinterpreted as impermanent beings subject to rebirth and karmic consequences, rather than eternal or supreme entities like . In contrast to Hinduism's henotheistic pantheon, where deities may represent aspects of a cosmic whole, Buddhist deities are demoted to supportive roles, bowing to and affirming the supremacy of the Triratna (, , ). This subordination underscores Buddhism's rejection of a creator god, emphasizing enlightenment through into rather than devotion to divine powers. Historically, Buddhist deities evolved from the assimilation of pre-Buddhist Indian spirits and Vedic devas into the early , as seen in the where gods like Sakka () engage with but acknowledge his superiority. This integration progressed in , systematizing enlightened beings like bodhisattvas as archetypal aids, and further developed in tantric texts from the onward, incorporating local and wrathful figures to address diverse cultural contexts while maintaining their karmic impermanence. Such evolution reflects Buddhism's adaptive strategy, transforming animistic and Brahmanical elements into tools for propagation without compromising core doctrines.

Variations Across Traditions

In Buddhism, deities such as devas are recognized as long-lived beings within the cycle of samsara but receive minimal emphasis as enlightened figures; they serve supportive roles, offering homage to and aiding practitioners indirectly, while salvation centers on the historical and individual effort toward nirvana. texts portray these deities as impermanent and subject to rebirth, underscoring their subordination to the rather than centrality in the path to liberation. Mahayana Buddhism markedly expands the role of deities, introducing cosmic Buddhas and s as compassionate saviors who manifest across realms to guide sentient beings; these figures embody enlightened qualities like and karuna, functioning as emanations to expedite the path for all. The Lotus Sutra, a foundational text, illustrates this by depicting as an eternal, cosmic presence whose teachings reveal the universal potential for , elevating like Avalokitesvara as key exemplars of tradition-specific prominence. Vajrayana, or tantric Buddhism, further integrates deities into esoteric practices, where practitioners visualize them—often in wrathful forms—as yidams during meditation to transform ordinary perception and achieve rapid enlightenment by uniting with their enlightened essence. Tantric texts, such as those in the Hevajra cycle, prescribe these deity yogas as methods to dissolve dualistic mindstates, emphasizing personal tutelary deities (yidams) tailored to the practitioner's needs without supplanting the core Buddhist emphasis on emptiness. Across Buddhist traditions, regional adaptations demonstrate , as seen in where local immortals (xian) were assimilated as devas or bodhisattvas, and in where indigenous were harmonized with Buddhist figures under theory, preserving doctrinal integrity while enhancing cultural relevance. This incorporation allowed Buddhism to interface with preexisting spiritual landscapes, such as equating with manifestations of buddhas, without fundamentally altering teachings on impermanence or the .

Enlightened Beings

Buddhas

In Buddhism, a is defined as a being who has fully awakened to the true nature of reality, achieving enlightenment and transcending the cycle of samsara (birth, death, and rebirth). This awakening involves complete liberation from and , enabling the to teach the path to nirvana for the benefit of all sentient beings. Unlike a , a is an enlightened human or supramundane figure who realizes the through their own efforts, and Buddhist traditions, particularly , posit that multiple Buddhas can arise across different times, realms, and cosmic eons, each manifesting to guide beings according to karmic conditions. The historical Buddha, known as Shakyamuni (Sage of the Shakyas), was born Siddhartha Gautama around the 5th century BCE in present-day . After renouncing his princely life, he attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree in , , following years of ascetic practice and . His core teachings, delivered in his first at , include the —acknowledging suffering (dukkha), its origin in craving, its cessation, and the path to end it—and the , comprising right view, intention, speech, action, , effort, , and concentration. These form the foundational framework for Buddhist practice. Following his (final passing) around 483 BCE, Shakyamuni is regarded in traditions as an eternal manifestation of enlightenment, inspiring devotion through relics, images, and narratives that portray him as a compassionate guide beyond ordinary death. In Mahayana Buddhism, cosmic Buddhas represent transcendent aspects of enlightenment, often depicted in pure lands or mandalas to aid practitioners. Amitabha (Infinite Light) presides over the Western Pure Land of Sukhavati, a realm of bliss accessible through faith and recitation of his name, emphasizing salvation for all beings regardless of merit. Vairocana, the central cosmic Buddha in esoteric traditions, embodies the primordial wisdom of emptiness (shunyata) and illuminates the universe, frequently positioned at the heart of mandalas symbolizing the interconnected Dharma. The Medicine Buddha, Bhaisajyaguru (Master of Healing), vows to cure physical and spiritual ailments, particularly through his lapis lazuli light that dispels illness and negative karma, as detailed in his sutra. Buddhas are often visualized in their sambhogakaya (enjoyment body) form, a radiant, supramundane aspect used for teaching advanced disciples in pure realms, distinct from their historical nirmanakaya (emanation body) and ultimate (truth body). This form features majestic iconography, such as the (wheel of Dharma) symbolizing Shakyamuni's teachings or the lotus representing purity, and serves to inspire devotion and guide sentient beings toward awakening. Bodhisattvas, who aspire to , revere these figures as exemplars of the path. Buddhist cosmology enumerates across past, present, and future eons. , a of a distant past era, is renowned for prophesying Shakyamuni's future enlightenment during his time as the ascetic Sumedha. Shakyamuni occupies the present fortunate eon (bhadrakalpa) as the fourth of five in this cycle. , the prophesied future , currently resides in the heaven as a , awaiting the time when human lifespans decline and the fades to descend and restore teachings.

Bodhisattvas

Bodhisattvas are beings in Mahayana Buddhism who vow to achieve full Buddhahood not for their own sake alone, but to liberate all sentient beings from suffering, thereby postponing their own entry into nirvana. In Theravada traditions, the term primarily refers to the Buddha-to-be in past and future lives, such as Metteyya (Maitreya). This path emphasizes compassion (karuna) and skillful means (upaya), allowing bodhisattvas to adapt their teachings and manifestations to suit the needs of diverse beings across realms. Unlike fully awakened Buddhas, bodhisattvas represent the active, ongoing journey toward enlightenment while serving as compassionate helpers in the world. Among the most prominent bodhisattvas is Avalokiteshvara, the embodiment of boundless compassion, often depicted in multiple forms to aid suffering beings, such as the lotus-holding Padmapani in Indian traditions and the female Guanyin in Chinese Buddhism. Manjushri, the bodhisattva of transcendent wisdom (prajna), is symbolized by a flaming sword that cuts through ignorance and a lotus-borne scripture representing profound knowledge, serving as a patron of scholarship, arts, and intellectual pursuits. Ksitigarbha, known as the "Earth Store" bodhisattva, vows to save beings trapped in the hell realms and other lower states of existence until the arrival of Maitreya Buddha, embodying unwavering commitment to the most forsaken. Bodhisattvas play crucial roles as intercessors who guide devotees toward rebirth in Pure Lands, such as Amitabha's , where enlightenment is more readily attainable. They manifest in myriad forms—transcending gender, culture, and even species—to respond to the karma and aspirations of individuals, fostering devotion and ethical conduct in everyday life. For instance, inspires learning and creativity, while Avalokiteshvara offers solace in times of peril, adapting across Asian traditions from to and . The bodhisattva path is defined by profound vows and the cultivation of perfections (paramitas), with core texts like the Bodhisattvabhumi outlining stages of practice from initial aspiration to advanced realization. The six paramitas include generosity (dana), ethical conduct (sila), patience (ksanti), heroic effort (virya), meditative concentration (dhyana), and wisdom (prajna), which form the foundation for benefiting others. In more expansive systems, ten paramitas add skill in means (upaya-kaushalya), vows (pranidhana), power (bala), and supreme knowledge (jnana), guiding bodhisattvas through ethical dilemmas and cosmic responsibilities. Cultural adaptations highlight the bodhisattva ideal's flexibility, as seen in where Tara emerges as a swift female , embodying enlightened activity and protective , often invoked for rapid aid in worldly and spiritual crises. This feminine manifestation complements male figures like Avalokiteshvara, reflecting Buddhism's integration with local traditions while preserving the core vow of universal salvation.

Protector Deities

Guardians of the World

The Guardians of the World, known as the or Caturmahārāja in , are prominent protective deities in who oversee the four cardinal directions and safeguard the Buddhist universe from external threats. These devas reside on the lower slopes of , the central axis of the cosmos, each positioned on one of its four sides and serving as patrons of the corresponding continents surrounding the mountain: Dhṛtarāṣṭra in the east over , Virūḍhaka in the south over Jambudvīpa, Vīrūpākṣa in the west over Godānīya, and Vaiśravaṇa in the north over . They are depicted as armored warriors standing atop demonic figures, often at temple entrances to symbolize their role in warding off malevolent forces and ensuring the stability of the realms. Dhṛtarāṣṭra, the guardian of the east, is associated with music and the gandharvas (celestial musicians), holding a or to harmonize and protect the through artistic means; he is typically portrayed as white or light-skinned. Virūḍhaka, ruler of the south, embodies growth and increase, commanding the kumbhāṇḍas (dwarf spirits) and wielding a sword to defend against invaders and promote prosperity; he is shown as blue or green. Vīrūpākṣa oversees the west, governing the nāgas (serpent beings) with attributes like a or jewel-spitting to maintain cosmic order, depicted in red hues. Vaiśravaṇa, the chief of the north and leader of the yakṣas (nature spirits), symbolizes wealth and martial vigilance, carrying a banner or umbrella and sometimes riding a ; he is yellow and linked to the Hindu deity . In their protective functions, the act as defenders against mārās (demonic tempters) and other disruptive entities, offering patronage to Buddhist practitioners by ensuring the dharma's endurance and symbolizing the balanced stability of the cosmic wheel. They are invoked in rituals for national safeguarding and personal protection, as seen in their frequent appearance in temple across Buddhist traditions. Originating from the Vedic and broader Indic lokapālas—directional guardians in pre-Buddhist mythology—these deities were incorporated into Buddhist narratives, where they submit to the Buddha's authority, as recounted in early sūtras and adapted that subordinate them to the dharma's supremacy. In East Asian adaptations, they are revered as the Shitennō in , functioning as fierce temple guardians integrated into local cosmology while retaining their core roles as world protectors.

Dharmapalas

Dharmapālas are fierce, oath-bound protectors in Buddhism, encompassing both worldly beings—non-enlightened spirits or deities subdued and committed to safeguarding the —and supramundane enlightened beings who defend the Buddhist teachings, the , and practitioners from obstacles and malevolent forces. These deities, often depicted in wrathful forms to symbolize their power in subduing negativity, play a crucial role in tantric practices by creating conducive conditions for spiritual progress, such as removing external threats or internal delusions. Among the supramundane dharmapālas are the Wisdom Kings (vidyārājas), wrathful manifestations of buddhas that enforce the through their unyielding wisdom and ferocity. Prominent Wisdom Kings include Acala, known as the "Immovable One," who wields a flaming sword to sever ignorance and a noose to bind afflictions, serving primarily to subdue heretics, demons, and doctrinal adversaries in esoteric rituals. Another key figure is , the "Conqueror of the Three Realms," representing victory over the desire, form, and formless worlds; he is invoked to overpower cosmic enemies like Maheśvara (Śiva), symbolizing the triumph of over non-Buddhist forces. Protector goddesses form another vital category, with the Five Protector Goddesses exemplifying converted female deities who guard the faithful; , once a child-devouring yakṣiṇī terrorizing families, was transformed by into a benevolent mother figure who now protects children, pregnant women, and the , often depicted holding a child and a . , a wrathful emanation of Tārā, rides a across a sea of blood while wielding weapons to destroy obstacles, serving as the principal protectress of and the . Other goddesses in this group, such as Raudrī—a fierce, black-hued attendant of Maheśvara who aids in battles against antigods—contribute to the collective defense of Buddhist doctrine. Mundane dharmapālas, typically worldly spirits adapted into Buddhist service, include multi-armed forms of Mahākāla, the "Great Black One" and lord of time, who manifests as a fierce protector emanating from Avalokiteśvara to eliminate enemies of the teachings, often shown trampling obstacles with skulls and thunderbolts. Yamāntaka, the "Conqueror of Death," appears as a buffalo-headed deity with multiple limbs, embodying the wrathful aspect of Mañjuśrī to vanquish Yama (the lord of death) and all forms of mortality, thereby shielding practitioners from existential fears. These beings' origins often trace to tantric masters who bound them through oaths; notably, Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoche) in the 8th century tamed numerous local deities and spirits in Tibet, compelling them to vow protection of the Dharma under threat of subjugation. Such dharmapālas hold particular emphasis in the Nyingma school, where terma (hidden treasure) traditions preserve narratives of these conversions, and in the Gelug tradition, where figures like Mahākāla and Palden Lhamo are central to monastic protector practices and the safeguarding of the lineage.

Celestial Beings

Devas

In Buddhist cosmology, devas are classified into heavenly beings inhabiting the six realms of the desire world (kāma-loka), ranging from the realm of the Four Great Kings (Cātumahārājika) to the realm of those who control the creations of others (Paranimmitavaśavartin), as outlined in the Abhidharma traditions. These realms form part of the broader tripartite structure of existence—desire realm (kāma-dhātu), form realm (rūpa-dhātu), and formless realm (arūpa-dhātu)—where devas in the form realm (rūpa-dhātu) and formless realm (arūpa-dhātu) abide in meditative states such as the jhānas or formless attainments, achieved through prior practice. In the Pure Abodes (Śuddhāvāsa) of the form realm, such as the Akanistha heaven, non-returners (anāgāmins) are reborn and attain arahantship, practicing the Dharma, listening to teachings, and receiving guidance. However, the intense bliss and long lifespans of devas often diminish their motivation to understand suffering and practice insight. Devas play supportive roles in the Buddhist tradition, often attending the Buddha's teachings as devoted listeners and demonstrating reverence through acts like (known as Śakra or Sakka in ), who holds a white umbrella to shield from the elements. They also contribute to the preservation of the by donating relics or participating in their enshrinement, as seen in accounts of heavenly beings aiding in the distribution and veneration of the Buddha's remains after his parinirvāṇa. Additionally, devas serve as exemplars of impermanence, experiencing vivid warnings—such as fading garlands or dimming palaces—when their accumulated merit depletes, prompting reflections on the transient nature of even divine pleasures and urging ethical conduct among humans. Prominent deva figures include , the ruler of the (Trāyastriṃśa) heaven, depicted wielding a (vajra) as a symbol of protective power while acting as a defender of the . Brahma, often portrayed as a with illusory claims to , is humbled by 's superior insight, as in discourses where the Buddha refutes Brahma's eternalist views and demonstrates the of self. Apsaras, ethereal celestial nymphs known for their grace and musical talents, accompany devas in heavenly assemblies, embodying allure and artistry within the divine spheres. Despite their exalted status, devas remain bound by , subject to rebirth upon the exhaustion of their positive karma, and thus cannot serve as ultimate objects of refuge; only , , and Saṅgha provide liberation from . In this context, devas occasionally face rivalry from asuras, jealous demigods who challenge their heavenly dominion. Culturally, in Southeast Asian traditions, devas appear in temple art as benevolent guardians flanking entrances or illustrated in , symbolizing moral lessons from the Buddha's past lives through vibrant murals and sculptures in sites like Thailand's .

Asuras and Other Deities

In , asuras are classified as demigods or titans inhabiting one of the six realms of samsara, positioned below the devas in the . Driven by intense jealousy and pride, they engage in perpetual warfare with the devas, whom they view as rivals for supremacy and divine resources, such as the elixir of . This contentious nature distinguishes asuras from the more harmonious devas, positioning them as embodiments of ego-driven conflict within lower celestial spheres. Nagas, depicted as powerful serpent deities, occupy subterranean or aquatic realms and serve as guardians of hidden treasures, sacred sutras, and natural elements like water. In Buddhist narratives, they play pivotal roles in rain-making rituals to ensure fertility and prosperity, while stories of their conversion highlight themes of protection and submission, such as the naga king Mucalinda who sheltered the newly enlightened from a storm by coiling around him with his hoods. Among other entities, yakshas function as nature spirits tied to forests, rivers, and , often acting as benevolent yet capricious guardians of under the oversight of , the lord of treasures. Garudas, majestic bird-like beings with human features, are renowned as the natural adversaries of nagas, symbolizing aerial dominion and preying upon serpents in mythic tales of cosmic balance. Kinnaras, ethereal half-human and half-bird (or horse) musicians, inhabit Himalayan paradises and evoke ideals of harmony through their celestial songs and dances, representing artistic grace in the lower heavens. Within Buddhism, these beings—asuras, nagas, and others—are frequently portrayed as being converted or tamed through encounters with the , illustrating the subjugation of ego, envy, and primal instincts to enlightened principles. In tantric traditions, they are integrated as worldly protectors, their energies harnessed to safeguard practitioners and the teachings, as seen in the eightfold assembly of devas and nagas that includes asuras, garudas, and kinnaras. Regional adaptations reveal further diversity: in , nagas evolve into the four dragon kings who rule the seas and skies, controlling weather and embodying protective serpentine power. In , local phi spirits draw from and naga influences, blending into animistic folklore as guardian entities of villages and waters, often invoked in rituals for harmony with nature.

Meditational Deities

Yidams

In , yidams are personal meditational deities, known as ishta-devata, selected by a practitioner or for practices that facilitate the realization of non-duality and the practitioner's innate enlightened potential. These deities serve as symbolic representations of the practitioner's own , embodying enlightened qualities such as wisdom, compassion, and purity, and are visualized during to transform ordinary perception into an awakened state. Unlike worldly deities, yidams are mentally constructed archetypes without inherent substance, aiding the practitioner in cultivating "divine pride" by identifying fully with the deity's enlightened mind. The origins of yidam practices trace back to the anuttarayoga tantras, the highest class of tantric texts in , which emphasize advanced yogic methods for realizing the sambhogakaya aspect of enlightenment. These practices developed in Indian tantric traditions and were transmitted to , where they became central to lineages such as the school, which integrates yidam meditation with and other oral instructions for direct realization of mind's nature. , or , from a qualified is essential before engaging in yidam practices, typically following preliminary accumulations like refuge recitations to prepare the practitioner's mind. Key yidams include Green Tara, a female bodhisattva embodying swift compassionate activity, often depicted seated with one leg extended, holding a lotus and blue utpala flower to symbolize readiness to aid beings in distress; White Tara, focused on longevity and healing, shown in a similar posture but with seven eyes for omniscient awareness; and , the purification , portrayed as a white figure holding a and bell to represent the union of method and wisdom in cleansing obscurations. Another prominent example is , a female of the anuttarayoga class, visualized as a red, dancing figure wielding a curved knife and , embodying the transformative power of bliss and emptiness. Yidam practices unfold in two main stages: the generation stage, where the practitioner visualizes the deity arising from emptiness, first externally and then internally as one's own form, incorporating mantras, mudras, and offerings to integrate body, speech, and mind with the yidam's qualities; and the completion stage, involving subtle yogic dissolution of the visualization into emptiness to realize non-dual awareness, often supported by inner heat or wind-channel meditations. Many yidams manifest in female or androgynous forms, such as Vajrayogini, to symbolize the union of method (masculine) and wisdom (feminine), allowing practitioners of any gender to transcend dualistic identities through the practice. Peaceful yidams like Tara often draw from bodhisattva archetypes as bases for tantric visualization.

Wrathful Deities

Wrathful deities in Buddhism belong to the class, characterized by their terrifying appearances designed to purify obstacles and symbolize the dynamic, enlightened energy that confronts delusions and ego. These figures, often multi-faced and multi-limbed, embody the forceful aspect of enlightenment, transforming destructive emotions into wisdom through advanced tantric meditation practices restricted to initiated practitioners. Their primary roles involve subduing negative forces, both internal and external, by channeling anger and aggression into compassionate wisdom, often visualized in settings to emphasize impermanence and the conquest of death. Unlike external protectors such as dharmapalas, focus on internal psychological transformation within meditational practices. Prominent examples include , also known as Vajrabhairava, a buffalo-headed, multi-faced who represents the wrathful emanation of the and conquers the lord of death, . , the horse-headed with fiery, erupting hair, manifests as a wrathful form of Avalokiteshvara, embodying the power to dispel ignorance and obstacles through his neighing cry of "Hrih." Simhamukha, the lion-faced wisdom , serves as a fierce female counterpart, roaring to eliminate curses, negativity, and while promoting enlightened activity. Iconographically, these deities feature garlands of skulls, enveloping flames, and an array of weapons such as curved knives (kartika) and skull cups (), with multiple limbs depicting dynamic action against ego-clinging. Their forms often include bulging eyes, fangs, and trampling of demonic figures, signifying the destruction of dualistic perceptions. Textually, draw from seminal such as the , which describes forms for realizing non-dual bliss and , and the Kalachakra Tantra, where they integrate time, cycles, and enlightened wrath to overcome samsaric bonds. These practices remain esoteric, requiring and guidance from a qualified to avoid misuse.

Iconography and Practices

Visual Representations

Visual representations of Buddhist deities emphasize symbolic elements that convey spiritual qualities and narratives, employing standardized iconographic conventions across traditions. These depictions serve as meditative aids, with attributes, postures, and colors encoding doctrinal meanings. For instance, s—ritual hand gestures—play a central role; the dharmachakra , formed by interlocking thumbs and index fingers, signifies the Buddha's teaching of the , often seen in images of Shakyamuni turning the wheel of law. Similarly, the varada , with an open palm extended downward, represents the boon-granting aspect of deities offering and fulfillment to devotees. Colors in these representations are not merely aesthetic but symbolize inherent qualities of the deities. White denotes purity and spiritual perfection, frequently adorning figures like to evoke primordial clarity and enlightenment. Blue signifies and the boundless nature of wisdom, as in depictions of Buddha, where it reflects the healing and protective aspects of enlightened activity. These chromatic choices draw from conventions, where each hue aligns with specific buddha families and meditative insights. Regional artistic styles adapt these symbols to local , creating diverse yet cohesive portrayals. In Gandharan art of northwestern and (1st–5th centuries CE), bodhisattvas like exhibit Hellenistic realism, with naturalistic musculature, flowing drapery, and individualized facial features that humanize divine forms. Tibetan thangkas, painted on cloth scrolls, capture yidams—meditational deities—with vibrant, jewel-toned palettes and intricate details, emphasizing dynamic energy and esoteric symbolism to facilitate visualization practices. Japanese esoteric art, influenced by Shingon traditions, portrays wisdom kings such as Fudō Myōō with symmetrical compositions and balanced proportions, reflecting mandalic harmony and the integration of wrathful and serene aspects. Mandalas structure deity representations in geometric patterns, embodying the and pure realms. These diagrams typically place a central figure, such as in the Sarvavid mandala, atop a symbolic throne, surrounded by attendant bodhisattvas and directional deities arranged in quadrants representing the five wisdoms and elements. This radial symmetry symbolizes the enlightened mind's integration of phenomena, with the palace-like enclosure denoting a purified reality free from samsaric delusion. The evolution of these depictions traces from aniconic symbols in early (3rd century BCE–1st century CE), where appeared as footprints or a to avoid , to anthropomorphic forms emerging in and around the 1st century CE. sculptures introduced fuller-bodied, indigenous styles with symbolic expansions like the cranial protuberance, while Greco-Buddhist influences in added wavy hair and realistic proportions inspired by . Subsequent Chinese adaptations, via the from the 4th century CE, incorporated gilt bronzes and sinicized features, blending idealism with imperial motifs to propagate iconography. Gender fluidity manifests in representations that transcend binary norms, as seen in female forms like Tara, who embodies enlightened activity and challenges patriarchal conventions by assuming a compassionate, savior role traditionally male-dominated. Tara's iconography, often in green or white variants, highlights female agency in and pantheons, drawing from prototypes that emphasize vows applicable to all forms. For example, Avalokiteshvara occasionally appears in female guise as , illustrating the non-dual nature of compassion beyond gender.

Worship and Rituals

Worship and rituals in Buddhism encompass a wide array of devotional practices aimed at cultivating , , and connection to enlightened qualities embodied by . These practices range from accessible daily observances to elaborate ceremonial events, emphasizing the invocation of as aids to rather than objects of blind adoration. Daily practices form the foundation of personal devotion to Buddhist , often involving simple yet profound acts performed at home or in temples. Prostrations, where practitioners bow fully to the ground before deity images, express humility and accumulation of merit, particularly in Tibetan traditions where they are repeated in sets of 100,000 as preliminary practices. Recitation of mantras, such as associated with Avalokiteshvara, is a core daily believed to purify negative karma and invoke the bodhisattva's ; practitioners may it hundreds of times using , integrating it into morning or evening routines for mental clarity and protection. Offerings of , symbolizing the diffusion of ethical conduct, and fresh flowers, representing impermanence, are commonly placed before deity statues to generate positive intentions and foster . Festivals dedicated to deities highlight communal worship through vibrant celebrations that reinforce shared faith. Vesak, commemorating the 's birth, enlightenment, and , features processions in countries like and , where illuminated floats carrying statues are paraded through streets amid lanterns and chants, allowing participants to circumambulate sacred sites and make offerings. In , Tara Puja—observed on the eighth day of the lunar month—honors Tara with pujas involving her praises and visualizations, often including communal feasts and dances to invoke her protective energies. Tantric rituals in Vajrayana Buddhism represent advanced devotional methods for directly engaging with deities, requiring initiation and guidance from a qualified . Sadhana texts guide the invocation of yidams (meditational deities) through structured visualizations, where practitioners dissolve into , generate themselves as the deity's form, and recite mantras to embody enlightened qualities like non-dual awareness. Fire pujas, or homa, are elaborate offerings to protector deities, involving consecrated substances burned in a ritual fire to pacify obstacles and propitiate dharmapalas, as seen in Newar Buddhist traditions where planetary homas remove astrological hindrances. ceremonies, known as wang, transmit the blessings of a specific deity lineage, purifying the practitioner's senses through symbolic ablutions and mantras, enabling participation in esoteric sadhanas. Lay and monastic practices of worship differ in scope and intensity, reflecting distinct roles within the Buddhist community. Laypeople engage in merit-making through home altars adorned with deity images, where daily offerings of water, light, and food accumulate positive karma and provide spiritual refuge, as in East Asian traditions with cabinets housing icons. Monastics, bound by vows, perform more intensive rituals like group pujas and retreats focused on tantric empowerments, serving as exemplars while relying on lay support for sustenance, thus creating an interdependent cycle of devotion. Ethically, deity worship is framed as a skillful means () to guide practitioners toward realization, not as but as a provisional method to transcend dualistic perceptions. In and contexts, these practices underscore the (shunyata) of all phenomena, including deities, viewing them as manifestations of the practitioner's innate rather than independent entities, thereby avoiding attachment and promoting insight into interdependence.

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  95. https://fpmt.org/media/resources/dharma-dates/dates-explained/
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