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Trochee
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| Disyllables | |
|---|---|
| ◡ ◡ | pyrrhic, dibrach |
| ◡ – | iamb |
| – ◡ | trochee, choree |
| – – | spondee |
| Trisyllables | |
| ◡ ◡ ◡ | tribrach |
| – ◡ ◡ | dactyl |
| ◡ – ◡ | amphibrach |
| ◡ ◡ – | anapaest, antidactylus |
| ◡ – – | bacchius |
| – ◡ – | cretic, amphimacer |
| – – ◡ | antibacchius |
| – – – | molossus |
| See main article for tetrasyllables. | |
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In poetic metre, a trochee (/ˈtroʊkiː/ TROH-kee) is a metrical foot consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one, in qualitative meter, as found in English, and in modern linguistics; or in quantitative meter, as found in Latin and Ancient Greek, a heavy syllable followed by a light one (also described as a long syllable followed by a short one).[1] In this respect, a trochee is the reverse of an iamb. Thus the Latin word íbī, 'there', because of its short-long rhythm, in Latin metrical studies is considered to be an iamb, but since it is stressed on the first syllable, in modern linguistics it is considered to be a trochee.
The adjective form is trochaic. The English word trochee is itself trochaic since it is composed of the stressed syllable /ˈtroʊ/ followed by the unstressed syllable /kiː/.
Another name formerly used for a trochee was a choree (/ˈkɔːriː/ KOR-ee) or choreus.
Etymology
[edit]Trochee comes from French trochée, adapted from Latin trochaeus, originally from the Greek τροχός, trokhós, 'wheel',[2] from the phrase τροχαῖος πούς, trokhaîos poús, 'running foot';[3] it is connected with the word τρέχω, trékhō, 'I run'. The less-often used word choree comes from χορός, khorós, 'dance'; both convey the "rolling" rhythm of this metrical foot. The phrase was adapted into English in the late 16th century.
There was a well-established ancient tradition that trochaic rhythm is faster than iambic.[4] When used in drama it is often associated with lively situations. One ancient commentator notes that it was named from the metaphor of people running (ἐκ μεταφορᾶς τῶν τρεχόντων) and the Roman metrician Marius Victorinus notes that it was named from its running and speed (dictus a cursu et celeritate).[4]
Examples
[edit]Trochaic meter is sometimes seen among the works of William Shakespeare:
Double, double, toil and trouble;
Fire burn and cauldron bubble.
Perhaps owing to its simplicity, though, trochaic meter is fairly common in nursery rhymes:
Peter, Peter pumpkin-eater
Had a wife and couldn't keep her.
Trochaic verse is also well known in Latin poetry, especially of the medieval period. Since the stress never falls on the final syllable in Medieval Latin, the language is ideal for trochaic verse. The dies irae of the Requiem mass is an example:
Dies irae, dies illa
Solvet saeclum in favilla
Teste David cum Sibylla.
The Finnish national epic, Kalevala, like much old Finnish poetry, is written in a variation of trochaic tetrameter.
Trochaic metre is popular in Polish and Czech literatures.[6] Vitězslav Nezval's poem Edison is written in trochaic hexameter.[7]
Latin
[edit]In Greek and Latin, the syllabic structure deals with long and short syllables, rather than accented and unaccented. Trochaic meter was rarely used by the Latin poets in the classical period, except in certain passages of the tragedies and the comedies.[8] The two main metres used in comedy were the trochaic septenarius and trochaic octonarius.
See also
[edit]
Look up trochee in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
- Monometer
- Prosody (Latin)
- Substitution (poetry), Trochaic substitution
- Prosody (Greek)
- Trochaic septenarius
References
[edit]- ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 293.
- ^ Etymology of the Latin word trochee, MyEtymology (retrieved 23 July 2015)
- ^ Trochee, Etymology Online (retrieved 23 July 2015)
- ^ a b A.M. Devine, Laurence Stephens, The Prosody of Greek Speech, p. 116.
- ^ The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. London: Abbey Library/Cresta House, 1977.
- ^ Josef Brukner, Jiří Filip, Poetický slovník, Mladá fronta, Prague 1997, p. 339–340 (in Czech).
- ^ Wiktor J. Darasz, Trochej, Język Polski, 1-2/2001, p. 51 (in Polish).
- ^ Gustavus Fischer, "Prosody", Etymology and an introduction to syntax (Latin Grammar, Volume 1), J. W. Schermerhorn (1876) p. 395.
Trochee
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Fundamentals
Definition
A trochee is a metrical foot in poetry consisting of two syllables: a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one in accentual meter, or a long syllable followed by a short one in quantitative meter.[6][9] This pattern, often notated as ´ ˘, forms a fundamental unit in prosody, contributing to the rhythmic structure of verse.[10] In prosody, trochees serve as the building blocks of trochaic meter, where lines or stanzas are composed primarily of repeating trochaic feet, creating a falling rhythm that establishes the poem's overall cadence.[6][10] This meter provides an underlying framework for poetic expression, allowing poets to organize syllables into predictable patterns that enhance musicality and emphasis.[10] Trochees represent artificial units of poetic meter rather than the natural rhythms of spoken language, which typically favor iambic patterns of unstressed followed by stressed syllables.[6][11] As such, trochaic structures often introduce a deliberate contrast to everyday speech, producing a more pronounced or unnatural effect in verse.[11]Phonetic and Prosodic Structure
In poetic scansion, the trochee is phonetically notated using symbols to distinguish stress patterns, typically employing ´ to represent the stressed (strong) syllable and ˘ to denote the unstressed (weak) syllable, forming the binary structure ´ ˘. This notation derives from classical prosodic traditions adapted for English verse analysis, where the stressed syllable carries greater intensity, duration, or pitch prominence. In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), English trochees exhibit primary stress on the initial syllable, as exemplified by words like "table" (/ˈteɪbəl/), where the vowel in the first syllable receives full stress, and the second syllable reduces to a schwa (/ə/). Such phonetic realization aligns with English's lexical stress tendencies, where trochaic patterns predominate in disyllabic nouns and adjectives.[10] The process of scanning a line for trochees begins with auditory identification of natural speech rhythms: read the line aloud to locate prominent syllables based on word stress and intonation. Next, divide the line into syllables, marking each as stressed (´) or unstressed (˘) according to phonetic prominence—stressed syllables often feature longer duration and higher pitch. Then, group the syllables into binary feet, starting from the left edge of the line to form successive trochees (´ ˘), ensuring the pattern alternates stress appropriately. Finally, assess for irregularities, such as catalexis, where the final unstressed syllable is omitted, resulting in an acephalous or truncated line ending on a stressed syllable (´). This methodical approach reveals the underlying prosodic skeleton, facilitating analysis of rhythmic flow.[12] Prosodically, trochees interact with line length to produce varied rhythmic effects, most notably in trochaic tetrameter, which comprises four trochees per line for an eight-syllable structure with stresses on the odd positions (1, 3, 5, 7). This configuration generates a descending, emphatic rhythm that suits narrative or incantatory verse, as the initial stresses propel the line forward. Catalexis frequently modifies the final foot in such lines, shortening it to seven syllables (´ ˘ | ´ ˘ | ´ ˘ | ´) for closure or emphasis, a common variation in English trochaic meters that enhances prosodic balance without disrupting the overall pattern. These variations allow trochees to adapt to phrasal boundaries and intonational contours, influencing the perceptual weight and tempo of the verse.[13][14]Etymology and Origins
Linguistic Etymology
The word trochee derives from the ancient Greek term τροχαῖος (trokhaîos), literally meaning "running," which evokes the foot's swift, falling rhythm akin to a wheel in motion.[15] This etymon stems from the verb τρέχω (trékhō), "to run," reflecting the dynamic quality attributed to the metrical unit in early Greek prosody.[16] The term's coinage in metrical theory is attributed to Alexandrian scholars of the Hellenistic and Roman periods, with prominent documentation by Hephaestion in his 2nd-century AD treatise Encheiridion peri metron kai poiēmatōn, where it systematizes trochaic structures based on pre-existing Greek poetic practices. Roman metricians adopted and adapted the concept, translating it as trochaicus in Latin grammatical works; Diomedes Grammaticus, in his late 4th-century AD Ars grammatica, employs the term to describe trochaic meters in Latin verse, integrating it into the broader framework of classical poetics.[17]Historical Development in Metrics
The trochee, as a metrical foot consisting of a long syllable followed by a short one (– ∪), originated in ancient Greek poetry within the Ionian tradition around the late 6th century BCE, where it formed the basis of quantitative meters emphasizing syllable duration over stress. This foot was integral to choral lyrics and dramatic works, allowing for rhythmic patterns that enhanced musical and performative elements. Poets such as Pindar incorporated trochaic elements into complex odes, blending them with dactylo-epitrite structures to create dynamic, flowing rhythms suited to victory celebrations, as seen in his integration of Ionian trochaics with Dorian styles in works like Olympian III. Similarly, Euripides employed trochaic tetrameter in his tragedies, where the meter's catalectic form (ending with a long syllable) supported emotional intensity and dialogue-like exchanges in quantitative scansion.[18][19] Roman poets adapted the Greek trochee while preserving its quantitative nature, applying it to Latin verse forms that mirrored Hellenistic models but accommodated the language's phonetic qualities. The trochaic septenarius, a seven-foot trochaic line often catalectic, was prominently used in comedy by playwrights like Plautus and Terence to evoke urgency in dialogue. Horace, in his Odes and Epodes, incorporated trochaic rhythms within lyric stanzas, such as mixed trochaic-iambic forms in certain Epodes, to achieve a sense of vitality while maintaining syllable length distinctions in strophic arrangements. Ovid, though more renowned for elegiac couplets, incorporated trochaic feet in his dramatic fragments and Metamorphoses, where they contributed to narrative pace within dactylic and iambic contexts, demonstrating the foot's versatility in Augustan poetry. This adaptation ensured the trochee's role in Latin metrics remained tied to classical quantitative principles, influencing later imperial works.[20] During the medieval period, the trochee persisted in Latin liturgical and sequence poetry, where quantitative ideals began yielding to emerging accentual rhythms in vernacular hymns, though classical forms lingered in scholarly compositions. The Renaissance marked a revival, as humanists sought to emulate antiquity through quantitative verse in modern languages. In 16th-century England, this adoption occurred via Latin grammars and rhetorical treatises, such as those by Richard Sherry and William Lily, which taught classical feet including the trochee to aspiring poets attempting "English hexameters" and other meters. Figures like Thomas Watson and George Gascoigne experimented with trochaic patterns in quantitative experiments, bridging classical metrics to vernacular prosody before the dominance of stress-based systems.[21]Usage in Poetry
In Classical Poetry
In ancient Greek poetry, the trochee served as a core metrical unit based on quantitative principles, consisting of a long syllable followed by a short one (– ∪). The trochaic tetrameter catalectic, structured as – ∪ – ∪ | – ∪ – ∪ | – ∪ –, held particular prevalence in tragedy for rendering dialogue with heightened energy or agitation. This form appeared in the works of Aeschylus, where it conveyed dramatic intensity, such as in the Persians (472 BCE), when the ghost of Darius rises and speaks to Atossa and the chorus in trochaic tetrameters to underscore supernatural revelation and urgency.[22][23] Although choral odes in Aeschylus typically employed more complex lyric meters, trochaic elements occasionally integrated into choruses to amplify rhythmic vitality during processional or responsive sections.[24] In Latin poetry, the trochee transitioned from strict quantitative adherence to greater accentual flexibility, reflecting the language's natural stress patterns. It featured prominently in the archaic Saturnian verse, an indigenous form predating Greek influences, where lines often divided into two hemistichs with trochaic cadences (e.g., a pattern approximating – × // – ×), used in early inscriptions, hymns, and epic fragments by authors like Livius Andronicus.[25] By the Republican period, Plautus extensively utilized the trochaic septenarius—equivalent to the quantitative trochaic tetrameter catalectic—in his comedies, such as Amphitruo, to drive fast-paced, humorous dialogue; here, deviations from ideal quantities occurred frequently, prioritizing word stress over syllable length for performative naturalness.[26][27] The trochee's emphatic initial beat associated it culturally with energetic and marching rhythms, evoking vitality in both ritual and theatrical contexts. In Greek tragedy, this suited satyric dances and processional elements, enhancing the physicality of performances, while in Latin comedy and rites, it supported lively, forward-propelling action akin to military or festive marches.[28]In English and Modern Poetry
In English poetry, the trochee gained prominence during the 19th century as part of a broader emphasis on accentual-syllabic meters that aligned with natural speech rhythms, particularly among Romantic and post-Romantic poets seeking to evoke oral traditions. This shift reflected a departure from stricter neoclassical forms toward more fluid, stress-based structures influenced by folk and indigenous rhythms. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow exemplified this adoption in his 1855 epic The Song of Hiawatha, composed entirely in unrhymed trochaic tetrameter to mimic the cadence of Native American chants and storytelling.[29] Longfellow's choice created a brief vogue for the form, inspiring subsequent poets to experiment with trochaic patterns for their rhythmic drive and accessibility.[30] In modern poetry, the trochee persists in varied forms, often integrated into free verse hybrids or traditional structures with loosened constraints, allowing for substitutions that blend metrical precision with conversational flow. This evolution is evident in 20th-century works by poets like Robert Frost, who employed trochaic substitutions within predominantly iambic lines to create subtle rhythmic disruptions and emphasize emotional weight, as seen in the opening of "Mending Wall" where an initial trochee masks the underlying iambic rhythm.[31] The trochee's adaptability also makes it a staple in nursery rhymes and children's verse, such as "Baa, Baa, Black Sheep," where its falling rhythm provides a catchy, memorable pulse suited to oral recitation and young audiences.[6] These variations highlight the trochee's role in bridging formal meter with modernist experimentation, prioritizing auditory appeal over rigid adherence. Stylistically, the trochee conveys urgency and incantatory qualities in English verse, its descending stress pattern producing a forward-leaning momentum that suits dramatic or ritualistic contexts. William Shakespeare frequently deployed trochees for such effects, as in the witches' chants in Macbeth—"Double, double toil and trouble"—where trochaic tetrameter evokes a spell-like incantation and heightens tension through relentless repetition.[6] Similarly, in King Lear, the trochaic repetition of "Never, never, never, never, never" amplifies a sense of finality and emotional urgency, underscoring the character's despair.[32] These uses demonstrate the trochee's capacity to infuse lighter or supernatural verses with rhythmic intensity, drawing on its ancient precedents in Greek and Latin while adapting to English's stress-timed phonology.[6]Examples and Analysis
English Language Examples
One prominent example of trochaic tetrameter in English poetry appears in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's The Song of Hiawatha (1855), an epic narrative drawing from Native American legends. The opening lines establish the poem's rhythmic foundation:By the shores of Gitche Gumee,These lines scan as trochaic tetrameter, with each foot consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one (four feet per line), often marked as: By the shores of Git-che Gu-mee,
By the shining Big-Sea-Water,
Stood the wigwam of Nokomis,
Daughter of the Moon, Nokomis.[33]
By the shin-ing **Big-**Sea-Wa-ter, This pattern aligns word boundaries with foot boundaries more frequently before strong positions, creating a hierarchical structure of two cola per line, each containing two feet labeled weak-strong.[34] The trochaic tetrameter in Hiawatha generates a galloping, forward-moving momentum that propels the narrative, evoking oral storytelling traditions and enhancing the epic's sense of continuous action across its 22 cantos.[35] Stress profiles from the poem confirm this rhythm, with positions 1, 3, 5, and 7 showing high percentages of stress (53.2%, 85.5%, 68.5%, and 100%, respectively), though variations occur to avoid monotony.[34] Substitutions, such as iambic (unstressed-stressed) or anapestic (unstressed-unstressed-stressed) feet, introduce flexibility within the dominant trochaic framework, allowing Longfellow to vary pacing while preserving the overall drive; for instance, syntactic phrases often bracket cola boundaries, as in exclamatory repetitions like "Hiawatha! Hiawatha!".[34][35] Trochaic trimeter, featuring three trochees per line, appears more commonly in shorter English ballads and songs, providing a lighter, chant-like quality suited to lyrical forms. A representative example is the opening of Percy Bysshe Shelley's "To a Skylark" (1820), structured as an ode with song-like invocation:
Hail to thee, blithe Spir-it! — Bird thou nev-er wert,This scans as perfect trochaic trimeter, emphasizing ascent and ethereal movement through its falling rhythm. In traditional nursery rhymes and folk ballads, similar trimeter patterns recur, as in "Wee Willie Winkie" (traditional Scottish, adapted in English collections), where the trochaic beat mimics a hurried, playful narrative:
Wee Wil-lie Wink-ie runs through the town,Such forms leverage the trochee's natural emphasis on initial syllables to create memorable, rhythmic propulsion in oral traditions.[6]
Classical and Other Language Examples
In ancient Greek poetry, the trochee was a quantitative foot consisting of a long syllable followed by a short one (— ∪), often employed in tragedy for scenes of heightened emotion or haste. A notable example appears in Euripides' Bacchae, where lines 604–641 feature trochaic tetrameter catalectic, a form with four trochees per line but the final short syllable omitted. Line 604, spoken by Dionysus, reads: Διόνυσος βάρβαροι γυναῖκες, οὕτως ἐκπεπληγμέναι φόβῳ ("Dionysus: Barbarian women, so struck with fear..."), scanning as — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — (with the line ending catalectically). This meter underscores the god's urgent address to the chorus amid the play's chaotic revelry.[36][37] In Latin comedy, the trochaic septenarius—a line of seven and a half trochees (— ∪ repeated, with resolution allowed)—was a staple for lively dialogue, particularly in Plautus, where it often highlights comedic banter and allows for accentual variations between word stress and metrical ictus. An example from Plautus' Captivi (lines 815–816) is: Iam ego revertar intro, si ex his quae volo exquisivero. ubi sunt isti quos ante aedis iussi huc produci foras? ("I shall go back inside now, if from these I can find out what I want to know. Where are those men whom I ordered to be brought out here from in front of the house?"), scanning approximately as — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ — | (with potential resolutions like iambs substituting in places for rhythmic variety). These shifts from classical quantitative norms reflect Plautus' adaptation for spoken performance, emphasizing natural speech rhythms over strict syllable length.[38][39] Beyond classical languages, trochaic patterns appear in non-Indo-European and other traditions, notably in Finnish epic poetry. The Kalevala, compiled by Elias Lönnrot from oral folklore in the 19th century, employs unrhymed trochaic tetrameter to evoke ancient runic songs, with lines typically structured as four trochees (— ∪ repeated). An opening line from Runo I illustrates this: Mieleni minun tekevi, aivoni ruveta ("My mind would urge me, my thoughts incite me"), scanning as — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪, mirroring the stress-timed prosody of Finnish and contributing to the epic's hypnotic, incantatory flow.[40][41]Comparisons with Other Feet
Versus Iamb
The trochee and iamb represent the two primary binary poetic feet in English versification, differing fundamentally in their stress patterns. A trochee consists of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one, denoted in scansion as / ˘ (for example, "TY-ger"). In contrast, an iamb features an unstressed syllable preceding a stressed one, scanned as ˘ / (such as "to-DAY"). This inversion creates a direct opposition: the trochee's "falling" rhythm descends from emphasis to release, while the iamb's "rising" rhythm builds toward stress, mirroring the natural cadence of English speech.[42][5] These structural differences yield distinct poetic effects. The trochee's descending energy imparts a sense of urgency, drive, or even inevitability, often evoking a forceful or emphatic tone suitable for chants, spells, or dramatic declarations. Conversely, the iamb's ascending pattern fosters a smoother, more conversational flow, closely approximating everyday intonation and lending itself to narrative or reflective verse. For instance, trochaic meter can heighten tension through its emphatic starts, whereas iambic lines promote a gentle progression that sustains longer forms without fatigue.[5][11] In practice, poets frequently substitute trochees for iambs within predominantly iambic meters to introduce rhythmic variation and avoid monotony, particularly in blank verse, which is unrhymed iambic pentameter. Such substitutions, like a trochee replacing an iamb in the first foot (known as a reversed initial foot), create subtle shifts that emphasize key ideas or mimic emotional intensity without disrupting the overall meter. This technique is evident in Shakespearean blank verse, where trochaic inversions add dynamism to dialogue, enhancing prosodic interest and interpretive depth.[10][11]Versus Spondee and Other Binary Feet
The trochee, with its pattern of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one, contrasts sharply with the spondee, a binary foot featuring two consecutive stressed syllables that produce a level, emphatic rhythm rather than the trochee's characteristic falling cadence. This stress equality in the spondee creates a heavier, more uniform beat, often used to convey intensity or solemnity in verse. In contrast, the trochee's inherent inequality drives a sense of descent and momentum.[43][44] Spondaic substitution in trochaic lines replaces the trochee's unstressed second syllable with a stressed one, intensifying the rhythm and emphasizing key elements without disrupting the overall binary structure. Such substitutions are common in English poetry to add dramatic weight or avoid monotony in predominantly trochaic passages.[45][44] Among other binary feet, the pyrrhic—comprising two unstressed syllables—acts as a counterpoint to both the trochee and spondee, serving as a light, unobtrusive filler that softens the rhythm when substituted into trochaic lines. Unlike the trochee's partial emphasis or the spondee's full stress, the pyrrhic's lack of accent creates subtle transitions, often blending seamlessly to maintain flow in verse. For instance, in trochaic patterns, a pyrrhic might appear as "of the" in a line, reducing intensity and allowing for smoother progression between stronger feet. Pyrrhics rarely form the basis of a meter but enhance variation in binary schemes.[43][46] These binary feet profoundly impact line rhythm in mixed meters, where substitutions like spondees or pyrrhics alter pacing and emotional tone. In classical Greek tragedy, primarily structured in iambic trimeter but incorporating trochaic elements in choral odes, spondees substitute for trochees or iambs to introduce gravitas and mimic spoken intensity, while pyrrhics provide rhythmic relief amid dense quantitative patterns. This interplay fosters dynamic tension, heightening tragic effects in works by Aeschylus and Sophocles.[46][44]References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trochee