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Cola
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Cola
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Cola
A glass of cola served with ice cubes
TypeSoft drink
OriginUnited States
Introduced1885; 140 years ago (1885)
ColorCaramel (with certain exceptions such as Zevia Cola and Kola Román)
FlavorKola nut, citrus, cinnamon and vanilla
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on

Cola is a carbonated soft drink flavored with vanilla, cinnamon, citrus oils, and other flavorings. The name, however, comes from the kola nut (Cola acuminata), which imbues the beverage with caffeine (though other sources of caffeine are generally used in modern formulations). A stimulating soda using kola appeared circa 1880.

Cola became popular worldwide after the success of Coca-Cola, a trademarked brand and symbol of American capitalism which has been imitated by other manufacturers. In 1886,[1][2] American pharmacist John Stith Pemberton finetuned his recipe for a soft drink; it also contained unspent coca leaf extract, and therefore cocaine.[1][3] His non-alcoholic recipe was directly inspired by the coca wine of pharmacist Angelo Mariani, created in 1863.[3][4] Local prohibition laws forced him to adapt his recent creation, French Wine Coca.

Most modern colas have a dark caramel color and are sweetened with sugar, high-fructose corn syrup or artificial sweeteners. There are numerous different brands, with Coca-Cola and Pepsi being among the most popular.[5] These two colas have been competitors since the 1890s, a rivalry that has intensified since the 1980s.[6][7]

Flavorings

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The primary modern flavorings in a cola drink are citrus oils (from orange, lime, and lemon peels), cinnamon, vanilla, and an acidic flavoring.[8][9] The Coca-Cola syrup was originally manufactured at Joseph J. Jacobs's pharmacy, making it the company's second home.[10] Manufacturers of cola drinks add trace flavorings to create distinctive tastes for each brand. Trace flavorings may include a wide variety of ingredients, such as spices like nutmeg or coriander. Acidity is often provided by phosphoric acid, sometimes accompanied by citric or other isolated acids. Coca-Cola's recipe is maintained as a corporate trade secret.

A variety of different sweeteners may be used in cola, often influenced by local agricultural policy. High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is predominantly used in the United States due to the lower cost of government-subsidized corn. In Europe, however, HFCS is subject to production quotas designed to encourage the production of sugar; sugar is thus preferentially used to sweeten sodas.[11] In addition, stevia or an artificial sweetener may be used; "sugar-free" or "diet" colas typically contain artificial sweeteners only.

In Japan, there is a burgeoning craft cola industry, with small-scale local production methods and highly unique cola recipes using locally sourced fruits, herbs, and spices.[12]

Clear cola

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In the 1940s, Coca-Cola produced White Coke at the request of Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Zhukov.[13][14]

Clear colas were again produced during the clear craze of the early 1990s. Brands included Crystal Pepsi, Tab Clear, and 7 Up Ice Cola. Crystal Pepsi was repeatedly reintroduced in the 2010s.

In Denmark, a popular clear cola was made by the Cooperative FDB in 1976. It was especially known for being the "Hippie Cola" because of the focus on the harmful effects the color additive could have on children and the boycott of multinational brands. It was inspired by a campaign on harmful additives in Denmark by the Environmental-Organization NOAH, an independent Danish division of Friends of the Earth. This was followed up with a variety of sodas without artificial coloring.[15] Today many organic colas are available in Denmark, but, for nostalgic reasons, clear cola has still maintained its popularity to a certain degree.[16]

In June 2018, Coca-Cola introduced Coca-Cola Clear in Japan.[17][18][19]

Health effects

[edit]
Further information: Criticism of Coca-Cola § Health effects

A 2007 study claimed that consumption of colas, both those with natural sweetening and those with artificial sweetening, was associated with an increased risk of chronic kidney disease. The phosphoric acid used in colas was thought to be a possible cause.[20] A link has been shown between long-term regular cola intake and osteoporosis in older women (but not men). This was thought to be due to the presence of phosphoric acid, though the risk for women was found to be greater for sugared and caffeinated colas than diet and decaffeinated variants, with a higher intake of cola correlating with lower bone density.[21] Substituting soft drinks for milk may impact adolescent bone development, increasing the risk of fracture.

A 2005 study indicated that soda and sweetened drinks are the main source of calories in the American diet and that of those who drink more sweetened drinks, obesity rates were higher.[22] Most[how?] nutritionists advise that Coca-Cola and other soft drinks can be harmful if consumed excessively, particularly to young children whose soft drink consumption competes with, rather than complements, a balanced diet. Studies have shown that regular soft drink users have a lower intake of calcium, magnesium, vitamin C, riboflavin, and vitamin A.[23]

The drink has also aroused criticism for its use of caffeine, which can cause physical dependence (caffeine dependence),[24] and can reduce sleep quality.[25]

Many soft drinks in North America are sweetened mostly or entirely with high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), rather than white sugar. Some nutritionists caution against the consumption of corn syrup because it may aggravate obesity and type-2 diabetes more than cane sugar.[26] As of 2022, there is no high-quality evidence that replacing cane sugar (sucrose) with HFCS causes any difference in health effects.[27]

Regional brands

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See also: Category:Cola brands

Asia

[edit]
  • Air Koryo Cocoa Honeydew, a 'Coca-Cola-style product' manufactured by the national airline in North Korea[28]
  • Amrat Cola, popular in Pakistan
  • Big/Real/Royal Cola, popular in Indonesia, Thailand, Nigeria and throughout South America
  • Campa Cola, India's most popular brand prior to the reintroduction of Coca-Cola and Pepsi to the Indian market in 1991
  • Chi Forest (formerly known as Genki Forest) sparkling water cola flavor, a local brand in China
  • Est Cola, a local brand in Thailand
  • Future Cola, a local brand in China
  • KIK Cola, a local brand in Sri Lanka[29]
  • Laoshan Cola, a local brand in China
  • Mecca-Cola, sold in the Middle East, North Africa, as well as parts of Europe
  • Meadows Classic Cola, a DFI brand in Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and Cambodia
  • Mojo, a local brand in Bangladesh
  • MyCola, a local brand in Sri Lanka[30]
  • Pakola, popular in Pakistan
  • Parsi Cola, popular in Iran
  • Red Bull Cola, popular in Thailand
  • Sparkling Super Cola, sold by the A.S. Watson Group (PARKnSHOP, Watsons) of Hong Kong
  • Terelj Cola, sold in Mongolia.[31]
  • Thums Up, popular in India
  • Topsia Cola, popular in Iran
  • Vita Cola, produced by Vitasoy of Hong Kong
  • Zamzam Cola, popular in Iran and parts of the Arab world

Europe

[edit]
Bottles of Berry Cola, a soft drink produced in Indre, France

North America

[edit]
A small glass bottle of Coca-Cola, the first cola
  • Coca-Cola, often referred to simply as Coke, is produced and manufactured by The Coca-Cola Company. It is one of the most popular cola brands in North America and worldwide, as well as being the original cola.
  • Pepsi, produced and manufactured by PepsiCo, is also one of the most popular cola brands in North America and worldwide. Pepsi is the main competitor and rival of Coca-Cola.
  • RC Cola, short for Royal Crown Cola, is now produced by Keurig Dr Pepper
  • Bec Cola is produced in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, sold across Quebec and Ontario. It is sweetened with primarily maple syrup
  • Big 8 Cola is a brand of colas and other flavored sodas that can be found in Atlantic Canada
  • Cott produces many house brand beverages as well as its own line of products, most notably its Black Cherry and Bubba cola.
  • The Double Cola Company, Double Cola
  • Faygo Cola is distributed in the Eastern United States and can be found in some regions of Canada.
  • Fentimans Curiosity Cola, originating from the United Kingdom in 1905, now sold across Europe and North America
  • Jarritos Cola is a brand of cola from Mexico, native to Mexico and widely distributed in the United States.
  • Jolt Cola is sold by Wet Planet Beverages of Rochester, New York.
  • Jones Soda also makes a cola using cane sugar.
  • Polar Beverages of Worcester, MA produces its own brand of cola under the Polar name.
  • Red Bull Simply Cola was available in the United States from 2008 to 2011.
  • Red Cola, a Mexican soft drink brand produced by Consorcio AGA, which also distributes Jarritos' products in certain regions in Mexico.
  • Shasta Cola, produced by Shasta
  • TuKola and Tropicola are brands from Cuba (also sold widely in Italy).
  • Zevia Cola is a zero-calorie soft drink sweetened with Stevia.

South America

[edit]
  • Inca Kola, created by Lindley bottler to compete with Coca-Cola. It is still the best selling cola in Perú.[38]
  • Big Cola, a cola produced by Peruvian company Ajegroup which operates in 14 countries in Latin America.[39]
  • Perú Cola, created by Peruvian bottler Embotelladora Don Jorge S.A.C. to compete with Coca-Cola and Kola Real.[40]
  • Kola Román, a cola that was invented in the city of Cartagena, Colombia in 1865 by Don Carlos Román.
  • Dolly Cola, Brazilian soft drink brand known for being a direct competitor to Coca-Cola. Although best known for its guarana flavor, the brand also sells the cola flavor.
  • Casa di Conti, in Cândido Mota, SP, Brazil, produces its own brand of cola under the name Conti Cola.[41][42]

Oceania

[edit]
  • Export Cola was an Australian carbonated cola drink Manufactured by Cadbury Schweppes (now Cadbury plc)[43] during the 1970s and early 1980s. A series of TV advertisements for the drink featured the Australian cricketer Jeff Thomson. It enjoyed a brief resurgence in popularity when it was re-launched in 1993, but the drink was discontinued in 1999.
  • LA Ice Cola is an Australian cola owned by Tru Blu Beverages, similar to Coca-Cola and Pepsi, its rivals.
  • Billson's produces a Heritage Cola, inspired by recipes dating back to the Temperance movement in Australia.
  • Foxton Fizz is a New Zealand soft drink company which produces a cola-flavored soft drink beverage, manufactured in Foxton.
  • Wests is a New Zealand soft drink company that produces a cola beverage. It is the oldest continuous manufacturer of soft drinks in New Zealand.[44]
  • Tahiti Cola from French Polynesia.

Defunct brands

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cola

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Cola is a carbonated soft drink flavored primarily with kola nut extract or synthetic equivalents, combined with sweeteners, caramel coloring, phosphoric acid, and additional flavorings such as vanilla, cinnamon, and citrus oils. Developed in the United States during the late 19th century amid the temperance movement and as patent medicines, cola beverages served as non-alcoholic alternatives to beer and tonics for ailments like headaches and fatigue, deriving their name and caffeine content from the West African kola nut (Cola acuminata). The modern cola archetype emerged with pharmacist John Stith Pemberton's Coca-Cola, first sold on May 8, 1886, in Atlanta, Georgia, initially incorporating both kola nut and coca leaf extracts for flavor and mild stimulation, though the latter's cocaine was fully removed by 1929. By the early 20th century, cola drinks proliferated globally through franchised bottling and aggressive marketing by companies like The Coca-Cola Company (founded 1892) and PepsiCo, achieving ubiquitous cultural status while comprising typical ingredients like carbonated water, high-fructose corn syrup, and 34 mg of caffeine per 12-ounce serving in standard formulations. Despite their popularity— with billions of servings consumed annually—colas have drawn empirical scrutiny for contributing to dental enamel erosion via acidity and phosphoric acid, as well as elevated risks of metabolic disorders from high caloric density, though causal links remain debated in nutritional science.

History

Origins and Invention

The , derived from trees of the Cola native to the rainforests of , served as the foundational element for cola beverages due to its natural content, which provided stimulant effects long before European commercialization. Indigenous West African cultures had chewed the bitter nuts for centuries to combat fatigue and hunger, with documented uses dating back to at least the following encounters. By the mid-19th century, kola nuts reached the via trade routes, where pharmacists experimented with them in medicinal tonics amid growing interest in as a non-alcoholic alternative to wine-based elixirs. pharmacist , a Confederate veteran seeking remedies for his own from Civil War injuries, initially created French Wine Coca in the early 1880s—a leaf and kola nut-infused wine marketed as a brain tonic. Following 's 1885 alcohol prohibition, Pemberton adapted the formula into a syrup devoid of wine, combining fluid extract of leaves (sourced from , containing trace ), kola nut , sugar, and other flavorings like and oils. On March 29, 1886, Pemberton finalized the syrup recipe in his backyard laboratory, and the first commercial sale occurred on May 8, 1886, at Jacobs' Pharmacy in , where it was mixed with and priced at five cents per glass, yielding about nine servings daily in its initial year. The name "" directly reflected its primary stimulants: from leaves and from kola nuts, positioning it as a for headaches, dyspepsia, and nervousness rather than a mere refreshment. This invention marked the birth of the cola category, though Pemberton sold rights to the formula shortly before his 1888 death, enabling its evolution from pharmacy tonic to mass-market soda.

Early Commercialization

John Stith Pemberton, a in , Georgia, developed the syrup in 1886 as a non-alcoholic alternative to wine-based tonics, initially selling it at Jacobs' Pharmacy where the first glass was served on May 8 of that year for five cents. In its debut year, the drink generated about $50 in revenue, with roughly nine glasses sold daily, marketed primarily as a medicinal tonic for headaches and fatigue through local print advertisements in the Atlanta Journal starting May 29, 1886. By 1888, Pemberton had sold partial rights to multiple partners, leading to fragmented production of Coca-Cola variants, but , a local businessman, acquired complete ownership for approximately $2,300 and began aggressive commercialization, incorporating the business in 1892 and emphasizing branding through coupons, signage, and souvenirs distributed to pharmacies and soda fountains across the American South. Candler's strategy shifted focus from medicinal claims to the beverage's refreshing qualities, with national magazine ads appearing by 1904, though early promotion relied on word-of-mouth and regional distribution, achieving sales of about 1,000 gallons of syrup annually by the mid-1890s. A pivotal advancement came in 1894 when Joseph Biedenharn began bottling in , transitioning from fountain service to portable containers, which facilitated wider retail access and laid the groundwork for mass distribution. Imitation colas emerged concurrently, such as Venable's and Brown's in the , capitalizing on the original's popularity but lacking proprietary protections until Candler secured trademarks and pursued legal defenses against copycats. In parallel, Caleb Bradham introduced an early competitor in New Bern, North Carolina, inventing "Brad's Drink" in 1893—a cola-nut flavored soda sold at his pharmacy—before renaming it Pepsi-Cola in 1898 to evoke digestive benefits from pepsin and kola nuts. Bradham incorporated the Pepsi-Cola Company in 1902, trademarking the name on June 16, 1903, and by 1904 achieved syrup sales of nearly 20,000 gallons, primarily through soda fountains in the Southeast, though financial instability from sugar price fluctuations hampered sustained early growth. These initial efforts established cola as a commercial soda category, driven by pharmacy origins and fountain sales before broader bottling and advertising scaled production in the early 20th century.

20th Century Expansion and Rivalries

initiated international expansion in the early , establishing bottling plants in and amid U.S. military presence in those regions. By 1912, the company started bottling operations in the , marking its first venture into . This growth accelerated, with bottling established in at least 76 countries by 1931. -Cola, originally formulated in 1893 and renamed in 1898, focused initially on domestic U.S. expansion, reaching over 240 franchises by 1910 before facing financial difficulties and bankruptcy in the 1920s. Revived under new ownership in 1923, Pepsi emphasized larger bottle sizes at lower prices to compete with during the , selling 12-ounce bottles for five cents compared to Coca-Cola's six-ounce serving. The mid-20th century saw intensified rivalries, dubbed the "," particularly from the 1970s onward as challenged 's dominance through aggressive marketing. 's "" campaign in the 1970s featured blind taste tests where participants preferred 's sweeter formula, eroding 's U.S. market share from around 60% in 1948 to 21.8% by 1984 amid rising competition. responded with increased advertising expenditures, surpassing $1 million annually by 1911 and scaling further, but faced setbacks like the 1985 launch of "," a reformulated version intended to counter that provoked consumer backlash and was withdrawn after 79 days in favor of "." , meanwhile, diversified by merging with in 1965 to form , broadening its portfolio beyond cola. Global market growth for cola beverages surged post-World War II, driven by U.S. military distribution of to troops, which familiarized international consumers and facilitated postwar bottling expansions. By the late , both brands had entrenched positions worldwide, with leading in brand recognition and Pepsi gaining through youth-oriented campaigns like the "Pepsi Generation." Rivalries extended to pricing, distribution, and endorsements, with Pepsi securing high-profile celebrities and leveraging its contour bottle for visual distinction. These competitions spurred innovation but maintained duopoly-like control over the carbonated sector, where cola variants comprised the majority of sales.

Composition and Manufacturing

Core Ingredients and Flavor Profile

Cola beverages are formulated with a base of , which constitutes approximately 90% of the volume and provides through dissolved under pressure. Sweeteners, typically or at concentrations around 10-11% by mass, deliver the primary sweetness essential to the drink's appeal. Acidity is achieved via , present at about 0.5% concentration, which contributes a sharp, tangy profile while acting as a and aiding in flavor extraction. (E150d) imparts the characteristic dark hue, derived from heated sugars and often including compounds for stability. Caffeine, sourced from extract historically but synthetically in modern formulations at levels of 10-12 mg per 100 ml, adds bitterness and a mild effect; real kola nuts were replaced in early 20th-century formulations due to supply challenges such as transportation difficulties from African sources and limited yields, as well as potential health risks from trace contaminants including carcinogenic mycotoxins, with modern colas using synthetic caffeine and spice-derived flavor mimics while kola nuts remain in traditional African beverages and some energy drink extracts. The distinctive flavor arises from a blend of natural flavors, centered on for creamy depth, for warmth, and oils (from orange, lemon, or lime peels) for brightness, with subtle contributions from , , and lavender in varying traces across formulations. These elements, combined with phosphoric acid's role in enhancing perceived spice and refreshment, yield a complex profile: intense sweetness balanced by acidity ( around 2.5-3.5), underlying bitterness, caramel-like maltiness from colorants, and aromatic spice notes that evoke the original kola nut's earthy source, though synthetic mimics predominate today. Exact ratios remain trade secrets, as with Coca-Cola's Merchandise 7X essence, but scientific analyses confirm this core matrix across major brands like and generic colas.

Production and Formulation Process

The formulation of cola beverages centers on a precise blend of , sweeteners such as or , acidulants like phosphoric or , , coloring for hue, and proprietary flavor concentrates replicating the taste originally derived from kola nuts, , , and oils to achieve the characteristic taste profile. These flavor concentrates are developed and produced under strict by major manufacturers, with only essential personnel accessing the full , and are shipped to bottling facilities as pre-mixed components to maintain . Manufacturing begins with rigorous , involving multi-stage filtration, , ultraviolet disinfection, and adjustment of mineral content to meet purity standards and prevent off-flavors, as constitutes over 90% of the final product. is then prepared by dissolving sweeteners in a portion of this treated under controlled temperature and agitation in tanks, followed by filtration to eliminate undissolved particles. The simple syrup is mixed with the brand-specific concentrate—incorporating acids, , preservatives (such as or ), and colorants—in agitated vessels to form the bulk syrup, with pH adjusted to approximately 2.5-3.5 for stability and tartness. This bulk syrup undergoes at high temperature for seconds to eliminate pathogens without altering flavor significantly, though some formulations rely solely on acidity and preservatives for microbial control. For carbonation, the bulk syrup is diluted with chilled, CO₂-saturated in a of roughly 1:5 using proportioning pumps and inline mixers to ensure uniform distribution, with injected under 3-5 atmospheres of in cooled tanks to dissolve efficiently and produce the signature . The resulting beverage is transferred under to filling lines, where containers ( bottles, PET, or aluminum cans) are rinsed, inspected, filled aseptically, capped or sealed to retain carbonation, labeled, and date-coded via automated high-speed machinery capable of processing thousands of units per minute. Throughout production, inline sensors monitor parameters like (sugar content, typically 10-12° for cola), carbonation levels (around 3.5-4 volumes of CO₂), and , with samples subjected to microbiological and sensory tests to verify compliance before packaging into cases or multipacks. Waste streams, including rinse water, are recycled where feasible to minimize resource use, aligning with industry standards for efficiency in continuous-flow operations.

Variants

Diet and Sugar-Free Variants

Diet and sugar-free cola variants emerged in response to growing consumer demand for reduced-calorie beverages, substituting sugar with non-nutritive sweeteners to mimic the taste profile while minimizing caloric content. These products typically contain fewer than 5 calories per serving, appealing primarily to individuals managing weight, , or sugar intake. Early formulations relied on , an artificial sweetener discovered in and approved for food use, which provided intense sweetness without carbohydrates. The first commercial diet sodas appeared in the late 1940s and early 1950s, targeted at diabetics; for instance, Kirsch Beverages introduced No-Cal Ginger Ale in 1952 using . Coca-Cola's Tab, launched on May 1, 1963, marked the company's entry into diet colas and achieved notable success as a low-calorie alternative sweetened exclusively with and until regulatory changes prompted reformulation. The pivotal advancement occurred with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's approval of in 1981, enabling broader adoption due to its closer approximation of sugar's taste. This facilitated the debut of on July 8, 1982, the first new brand under the trademark since 1886, which rapidly became a and reshaped the category. Contemporary diet and sugar-free colas employ a range of approved sweeteners, often in blends for optimal flavor stability and reduced aftertaste. primarily uses , combined with , , and flavors, yielding about 1 calorie per 12-ounce serving. Coke Zero Sugar, introduced in 2005 as Coke Zero and rebranded in 2017, incorporates and (Ace-K) to replicate the original Coca-Cola's profile more closely, targeting consumers seeking zero-sugar options without the "diet" label. Other variants, such as , utilize , acesulfame K, and , while some newer formulations incorporate stevia-derived for a alternative, as seen in select regional or limited-edition products. These sweeteners undergo heat processing during manufacturing to preserve beverage integrity, though 's component requires warning labels for (PKU) sufferers. By 2023, diet and zero-sugar colas accounted for approximately 25-27% of the U.S. carbonated market volume, with holding an 8% share among leading brands, underscoring their sustained popularity despite competition from regular variants. Globally, these products have expanded into flavored iterations like Cherry (launched 1985) and caffeine-free options, adapting to regional preferences while maintaining core low-calorie formulations. Regulatory scrutiny, including aspartame's classification as "possibly carcinogenic" by the WHO's IARC in 2023 at high doses far exceeding typical consumption, has not halted sales, as evidenced by stable market positions from producers like .

Clear and Flavored Innovations

In the early 1990s, clear colas emerged as a novel variant aiming to evoke purity by removing the traditional caramel coloring associated with standard colas, aligning with broader consumer trends toward transparent and "natural" products. launched in a in , on April 13, 1992, positioning it as a lighter, caffeine-free alternative that retained cola flavor without artificial hues. The product achieved initial hype, including a advertisement in January 1993 featuring Van Halen's "Right Now," but nationwide sales from December 1992 failed to sustain momentum, leading to discontinuation by early 1994 as consumer preference reverted to colored colas for familiarity. countered with , a diet-oriented clear cola released in 1992 explicitly to compete, though it too underperformed and was withdrawn shortly thereafter, highlighting the challenges of disrupting entrenched visual expectations in the category. Flavored colas innovated by layering fruit essences or other profiles onto the base formula, expanding appeal beyond the original taste while leveraging established . Coca-Cola introduced Cherry Coke as its first major flavored extension, test-marketed at the in , and rolled out nationally in the United States in early 1985, where it rapidly gained traction among 12- to 17-year-olds by combining cola with cherry syrup for a sweeter, more versatile profile. followed with its own cherry variant in late 1985, but Cherry Coke's early launch marked a pivotal shift toward flavor diversification, influencing subsequent releases like in 2002 and limited editions such as orange cream in 2025, which blend cola with zesty or creamy notes to target nostalgia and novelty. These innovations often prioritize regional or seasonal experimentation, as seen in berry-infused colas promoted at events, though market success varies with consumer fatigue toward overly sweetened or gimmicky additions.

Brands and Market Presence

Dominant Global Brands

The global cola market is overwhelmingly dominated by and Pepsi-Cola, which together account for roughly 70% of worldwide volume sales as of 2024, with maintaining a commanding lead. , the flagship brand of , holds approximately 50% , driven by its extensive distribution in over 200 countries and territories. In 2024, the company's global unit case volume for all beverages grew 1%, with Trademark contributing significantly to this expansion through a 2% quarterly increase in the fourth quarter. The system further bolstered availability by adding over 250,000 net new outlets and nearly 600,000 coolers during the year. Pepsi-Cola, under , secures about 20% of the global cola market, positioning it as the primary challenger in the duopoly. 's overall net revenue reached around $92 billion in 2024, with its beverage portfolio—including Pepsi-Cola—representing a key segment amid competition from diversified snacks like . While specific isolated cola sales volumes are not separately reported, Pepsi-Cola's global footprint mirrors Coca-Cola's in reach but lags in volume dominance, particularly outside where regional preferences occasionally favor it. No other brands achieve comparable global scale in cola; entities like or (the latter often classified separately due to its unique flavor) hold niche positions with market shares under 5% collectively. This concentration stems from entrenched , massive advertising expenditures, and proprietary bottling networks that create high for newcomers.
BrandEst. Global Cola Market Share (2024)Key Strength
Coca-Cola~50%Universal distribution, brand value exceeding $98 billion
Pepsi-Cola~20%Integrated food-beverage synergy via

Regional and Niche Brands

In , serves as a prominent regional cola alternative, originating in 1957 in what was then as a domestically produced using fermented beet extract and caramel for flavoring. It achieved widespread popularity during the communist era due to import restrictions on Western brands and now commands about 20% in the and significant portions in and , outperforming some global competitors in local sales volumes. In , represents a robust regional cola variant, launched in 1977 by Ramesh Chauhan's and acquired by in 1993, noted for its spicier, more intense cola profile derived from higher and flavor concentration compared to standard formulas. It captured over 40% of India's cola market by the early through aggressive local , reflecting preferences for bolder tastes in the region. Niche craft colas emphasize artisanal production with natural ingredients like cane sugar and botanical extracts, differentiating from high-fructose corn syrup-based mass-market options. Boylan Cane Cola, produced by the Boylan Bottling Company since reviving its 1891 roots in the 1990s, uses essence and pure cane sugar, appealing to consumers seeking vintage-style authenticity in small-batch bottles. Similarly, , a UK-based brand launched in the early 2000s, incorporates chinotto, ramblers and lime for a complex, less sweet profile, positioning it as a premium mixer for cocktails. Other niche examples include Maine Root Mexicane Cola, a US craft brand using fair-trade organic cane sugar and Mexican-inspired flavors since 2009, and Culture Pop Soda's probiotic-infused cola variant, which adds apple cider vinegar for a tangy, gut-health-oriented twist while maintaining traditional cola notes. These brands typically achieve distribution in specialty stores and online, with production scales under 1 million cases annually, prioritizing quality over volume.

Discontinued and Defunct Brands

Numerous cola brands and variants have been introduced over the decades, only to be discontinued due to insufficient consumer demand, strategic missteps by parent companies, or inability to compete with dominant players like and . These failures often stemmed from experimental flavors or marketing that failed to resonate, leading to rapid withdrawal from markets. Independent startups faced even steeper odds, with many succumbing to financial pressures in the early as bottling scaled up for larger rivals. One prominent example is , launched by in 1993 as an attempt to capture consumers with a minimalist, ironic branding emphasizing "" and existential themes. Despite a $25 million campaign, it achieved negligible sales and was pulled from shelves by 1995, never achieving national distribution beyond select test markets. Similarly, , introduced by in 1992 as a clear variant marketed as pure and modern, generated initial hype but faltered due to its altered taste profile lacking traditional cola opacity and caramel notes, leading to discontinuation in 1994 after spending $40 million on promotion. Tab, The Coca-Cola's first diet cola launched in 1963 using as a , targeted weight-conscious consumers but saw declining sales after the 1982 introduction of , which offered for better taste. Production ceased on December 31, 2020, ending a 57-year run amid shifting preferences toward zero-calorie alternatives without aftertaste. , a coffee-infused cola debuted in 2006 to blend soda and trends, was discontinued in 2008 after failing to sustain interest beyond novelty appeal, with remaining stock sold into 2009. Among independent efforts, Chero-Cola, originating in 1912 from reformulated formulas in and Georgia, expanded via franchised bottling but encountered financial distress; local plants like the one in , filed for bankruptcy and liquidated assets by 1921 amid post-World War I economic instability. The brand later rebranded to and eventually Royal Crown (, though RC's corporate headquarters closed in 1993 due to mismanagement, marking the end of its independent era despite continued limited production. , an independent high- formula launched in 1985 with the slogan "All the sugar and twice the caffeine," gained cult status but faced regulatory scrutiny and market saturation; it was discontinued in 2010 following the original company's sale and reformulation failures.
BrandLaunch YearDiscontinuation YearKey Notes
19931995Coca-Cola experiment; poor Gen X appeal despite heavy marketing.
19921994Pepsi's clear variant; taste and visual mismatch led to flop.
Tab19632020Original diet cola; eclipsed by improved rivals.
20062008Coffee-cola hybrid; novelty faded quickly.
Chero-Cola19121920s (rebranded)Early independent; local bankruptcies amid competition.

Health and Nutritional Evaluation

Nutritional Breakdown

A typical 12 (355 ml) serving of regular cola, exemplified by Original, derives nearly all of its 140 calories from carbohydrates, specifically 39 grams of total sugars (all added, primarily ). It contains 0 grams of , 0 grams of protein, and negligible , with sodium at 45 mg contributing minimally to daily intake. is present at approximately 34 mg per serving, providing a mild effect without other micronutrients of note. Comparable data for Pepsi-Cola shows 150 calories per 12 serving, with 41 grams of carbohydrates (40 grams as total sugars) and 38 mg of , maintaining a similar macronutrient void. These profiles reflect the standard formulation across major brands, where imparts tartness but no nutritional value, and adds no calories.
NutrientCoca-Cola (12 fl oz)Pepsi-Cola (12 fl oz)% Daily Value (approx., based on 2,000 cal diet)
Calories1401507-8%
Total Sugars (g)3940Exceeds 100% (limit 50g/day)
Sodium (mg)45301-2%
Caffeine (mg)3438N/A (no established DV)
Fat/Protein/Fiber (g)000%
Diet variants eliminate sugars and calories through artificial sweeteners like , yielding 0 calories and under 1 gram of carbohydrates per serving, though they retain and . Overall, regular cola's composition offers with no vitamins, minerals, or essential nutrients, positioning it as a high-glycemic, low-nutrient beverage in empirical dietary assessments.

Evidence-Based Benefits

Cola beverages contain , typically 34 mg per 12-ounce serving in standard formulations such as , which at low doses has been shown to enhance vigilance, , and reaction time by blocking receptors and reducing perceived . These cognitive effects are particularly evident during periods of or sustained , with improvements in simple cognitive tasks observed at doses around 40 mg. However, higher-order like show less consistent benefits from such dosages. As a fluid source, cola contributes to daily hydration similarly to in short-term assessments, with randomized trials demonstrating no significant differences in cumulative output or over four hours after consuming 1 liter of cola compared to in euhydrated individuals. This equivalence holds despite caffeine's mild potential, as the net retention remains comparable in controlled settings. In specific medical contexts, has demonstrated efficacy in dissolving gastric phytobezoars, indigestible masses that can obstruct the , with case reports and reviews indicating successful resolution in up to 90% of cases through ingestion of 2-3 liters over 24-48 hours, attributed to the beverage's and promoting mechanical and chemical breakdown. This application is supported by endoscopic confirmation of mass dissolution but is limited to therapeutic use under supervision rather than routine consumption. Evidence for broader relief of or general upset remains anecdotal and inconclusive, with systematic reviews finding insufficient support for carbonated beverages in replacement or symptom alleviation. Systematic reviews of consumption, including cola, identify no additional nutritional or health benefits beyond these isolated effects, with empirical data emphasizing the absence of positive associations in large cohorts for outcomes like balance or intake.

Empirical Risks and Causation Analysis

Regular consumption of sugar-sweetened cola beverages has been linked to increased risk of in multiple prospective cohort studies and meta-analyses, with one daily serving associated with a 16-25% higher incidence, independent of adiposity and after adjusting for confounders like and diet. These associations stem from the high content promoting hepatic fat accumulation, , and beta-cell dysfunction, as evidenced by mechanistic studies on , though long-term randomized trials are limited due to ethical and practical constraints. Cola intake correlates with and in longitudinal analyses, where higher consumption predicted increased (BMI) over years, even after controlling for baseline weight, energy intake, and lifestyle factors; for instance, daily consumers showed 76% higher odds of compared to non-consumers. Causation is supported by dose-response relationships and substitution trials indicating that replacing caloric beverages with reduces , attributing effects to liquid calories evading signals and displacing nutrient-dense foods. Similarly, sugar-sweetened colas elevate risk through clustered outcomes like and , with systematic reviews confirming positive dose-dependent associations after multivariable adjustment. The in colas contributes to by lowering oral below the critical threshold for enamel demineralization (around 5.5), as demonstrated in and clinical studies showing surface loss proportional to exposure time and beverage acidity. Frequent consumption erodes enamel microstructure, increasing susceptibility to caries and sensitivity, with cola outperforming other sodas in erosive potential due to its combined acid and content. For health, evidence is weaker and sex-specific; meta-analyses indicate inverse associations with bone mineral density in adults, potentially from disrupting calcium-phosphorus and increasing urinary calcium excretion, though some large cohorts find no clear risk after confounder adjustment. levels in cola (typically 30-50 mg per serving) pose minimal independent cardiovascular risk in moderation, per reviews, but exacerbate sugar-related effects in high consumers. Overall, while observational data dominate, consistent dose-responses and biological plausibility strengthen causal inferences for metabolic and erosive harms, underscoring risks beyond mere correlation.

Controversies

Marketing and Formula Disputes

The rivalry between The Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo, known as the "Cola Wars," intensified in the 1970s and 1980s through aggressive marketing tactics, including blind taste tests and exclusive distribution deals with fast-food chains. Pepsi's "Pepsi Challenge" campaign, launched in 1975, featured side-by-side taste tests where participants preferred Pepsi over Coke in 3:2 ratios on average, prompting Coca-Cola to adjust its strategy amid declining market share from 60% in the 1940s to under 25% by 1983. In 2011, PepsiCo sued Coca-Cola, alleging false advertising in Powerade ads claiming electrolyte superiority for hydration over Gatorade, settling out of court after Coca-Cola agreed to modify claims. Coca-Cola's 1985 formula reformulation, dubbed "," represented a pivotal and product dispute triggered by Pepsi's gains. Announced on April 23, 1985, the sweeter, Pepsi-mimicking recipe—developed after 200,000 taste tests favoring it blindly—ignited consumer protests, with over 1,500 complaints daily to by May, including letters likening the change to betraying American culture. The backlash stemmed from emotional attachment to the original, overlooked in blind tests; sales of lagged, leading to the July 11, 1985, reinstatement of the prior formula as "," boosting overall sales 10% within months. Formula secrecy has fueled disputes, with 's "Merchandise 7X" flavoring guarded as a since 1886, stored in a World of vault in since 2011 and protected by non-disclosure agreements with fewer than 10 knowing employees. The company avoided patenting to prevent 20-year public disclosure, opting for perpetual status under Georgia law. In September 1985, defied a federal judge's order to disclose formulas in a bottler antitrust suit, citing irreparable harm to its $35 million annual advertising value. Ingredient controversies include the 2014 phase-out of (BVO) from both and products following FDA review of toxicity data linking it to organ damage in , after petitions and California's 2014 warning label mandate. faced a 2019 lawsuit alleging misrepresentation of its secret formula's origins, claiming Wayne Ritchie, a 1920s employee, retained rights without transfer, though the case highlighted evidentiary gaps rather than formula revelation.

Health Claims and Litigation

Cola beverages have been subject to various health claims, primarily from manufacturers emphasizing refreshment and enjoyment without substantiating nutritional benefits, contrasted by scientific evidence linking regular consumption to adverse outcomes. Peer-reviewed studies associate soft drink intake, including colas, with increased caloric consumption and body weight gain due to high sugar content, often exceeding 10 teaspoons per 12-ounce serving. Phosphoric acid in colas contributes to risks such as hypocalcemia when intake reaches 1.5 liters weekly, disrupting calcium balance. Sugary colas elevate blood glucose rapidly, correlating with higher incidences of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease in epidemiological data. Dental and skeletal health claims have drawn scrutiny, with colas' acidity ( around 2.5) and eroding and promoting decay, as evidenced by clinical observations of discoloration and in frequent consumers. Regarding , multiple cohort studies, including the Framingham Osteoporosis Study, link cola consumption—particularly in women—to reduced density, attributed to 's interference with calcium absorption rather than alone; non-cola carbonated drinks show no such effect. Animal models confirm delayed post-extraction in cola-exposed subjects. Excessive intake may also impair via metabolic disruptions, though human causation remains associative. Litigation has targeted cola producers for allegedly misleading consumers on these risks. In 2017, a lawsuit by the Praxis Project accused Coca-Cola and the American Beverage Association of denying links between sugar-sweetened beverages and obesity, type 2 diabetes, and heart disease, despite epidemiological evidence, seeking to curb deceptive marketing. Similar class actions under California's Proposition 65 addressed 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI), a caramel coloring byproduct classified as a carcinogen, with PepsiCo settling in 2015 to reduce levels and Coca-Cola reformulating to avoid warnings after Consumer Reports tests detected over 29 micrograms per can in some products. Ongoing ultra-processed food suits, including against Coca-Cola and PepsiCo as of 2025, allege addictive formulations contribute to childhood diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, drawing parallels to tobacco litigation. These cases highlight tensions between industry-funded research downplaying harms and independent studies establishing associations, though courts have dismissed some claims lacking direct causation proof.

Environmental and Regulatory Challenges

The production of cola beverages imposes significant environmental burdens, primarily through high consumption in and supply chains. In 2024, reported a use of 1.78 liters of per liter of beverage produced globally, with 92% of usage occurring in agricultural sourcing for ingredients like . PepsiCo's operations similarly averaged 2.2 liters per of production in high-risk areas in 2024, despite efficiency improvements of 22% since 2015 baselines. These figures reflect efforts to replenish —such as Coca-Cola's claim of returning 148% of used to in 2023—but critics highlight ongoing depletion in sourcing regions like and , where local scarcity has led to protests. Packaging contributes to pervasive , with single-use PET bottles dominating cola distribution. has ranked as the world's top branded plastic polluter for six consecutive years through 2023, per audits by Break Free From Plastic, due to reliance on virgin fossil-fuel-derived despite pledges for 30-35% recycled content by 2035. Oceana's 2025 analysis documented 's packaging as a major source of environmental debris, exacerbating marine and terrestrial waste accumulation. from production and further compound impacts, prompting to scale back absolute reduction targets in December 2024 amid criticism for insufficient progress against 2010 baselines. Regulatory responses target health externalities from cola's high sugar content while indirectly addressing environmental costs via waste reduction mandates. Over 50 jurisdictions worldwide, including (since 2014), the (2018), and (2017), have implemented taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) like cola, typically 1-10 cents per , correlating with 10-33% price hikes and reduced purchases in peer-reviewed studies. However, effectiveness remains debated: while sales of taxed drinks decline, substitution to untaxed alternatives often offsets net sugar reduction, yielding minimal impacts per economic analyses. Additional regulations include school sales bans in over 30 U.S. states since the early and failed large-size prohibitions, such as New York City's 2012 proposal for drinks over 16 ounces. Labeling requirements, like California's stalled warning mandates and EU content disclosures, face industry pushback, exemplified by a 2025 class-action suit against 's "natural flavors" claims. Beverage firms, including and , have lobbied against local taxes in eight U.S. states, securing preemption laws in four to limit municipal authority, prioritizing revenue preservation over empirical gains. Emerging EU and global packaging rules aim to curb plastic use, but voluntary corporate goals often lag enforceable standards.

Societal and Economic Impact

Cultural Role and Consumption Patterns

Cola beverages, particularly , have become enduring symbols of American and modernity, often representing and social refreshment since their in the late . Exported globally following , cola drinks facilitated cultural exchange, embedding themselves in local traditions while evoking associations with Western prosperity and youthfulness. In many societies, cola serves as a social lubricant at gatherings, meals, and celebrations, transcending its origins as a medicinal tonic to embody casual enjoyment and brand-driven . Global consumption patterns reveal stark regional disparities, with leading in intake at approximately 634 8-ounce servings of annually as of 2023, driven by cultural integration into daily routines and festive occasions. The follows with about 154 liters of soda yearly, though this encompasses broader carbonated soft drinks. In aggregate, over 10,000 products are consumed worldwide every second, underscoring cola's dominance in the non-alcoholic beverage sector.
CountryPer Capita Consumption (liters/year, approx.)
173 (Coca-Cola focused)
154 (soda overall)
Others (e.g., , )High volume but lower per capita
Consumption trends indicate stagnation or decline in developed nations, attributed to heightened health awareness and shifts toward low-sugar alternatives; U.S. per capita soft drink intake is projected at 42.2 gallons in 2025, reflecting a gradual downward trajectory over decades. Conversely, demand persists or grows in emerging markets amid urbanization and marketing expansion, though adolescent intake has decreased in several countries from 2003 to 2019 per global surveys. Demographically, younger consumers favor flavored variants, while overall patterns show cola paired frequently with fast food and as a mixer in social settings.

Industry Economics and Global Trade

The global cola beverage market, encompassing carbonated and non-carbonated variants, reached a valuation of USD 144.6 billion in 2024, driven by demand in emerging markets and product diversification. The industry exhibits oligopolistic characteristics, with and commanding dominant positions through extensive branding, distribution networks, and franchise bottling systems that minimize on production facilities. Coca-Cola's net revenues totaled $47.1 billion in 2024, reflecting 3% reported growth and 12% organic growth from pricing and volume gains, while 's overall net revenue approximated $92 billion, with its beverage segment—including Pepsi Cola—contributing a substantial share amid diversified synergies. Production economics favor scale efficiencies, where variable costs such as , corn-derived sweeteners, and packaging constitute primary inputs, often hedged against fluctuations to maintain margins above 20-30% for leading firms. The model—wherein parent companies supply syrup to independent bottlers for local mixing, , and packaging—reduces transportation expenses for bulk liquids and circumvents high tariffs on finished beverages, yielding high operating leverage as fixed costs like (often 10-15% of revenues) amortize over billions of units. remain formidable due to entrenched , regulatory approvals for formulas, and capital-intensive distribution, limiting competition to private labels and regional players despite occasional disruptions from health trends favoring low-sugar alternatives. In global trade, finished carbonated soft drinks—including cola—exported valued $29.6 billion in 2023, marking a 4.4% year-over-year increase, though concentrates dominate cross-border flows to optimize and duties. Major exporting nations include the , , and (leveraging tax structures for concentrate production), while imports are led by the U.S. at $2.0 billion in 2022, followed by demand hubs like the and . Per capita consumption peaks in at 634 8-ounce servings annually as of 2023, underscoring Latin America's role as a growth engine amid slower mature-market saturation in and . Trade dynamics are shaped by sugar quotas, water sourcing regulations, and reciprocal agreements under frameworks like NAFTA/USMCA, with emerging economies in —such as and —expanding local production to curb reliance and foster in bottling operations.

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