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Uttu
Uttu
Uttu
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Uttu
Goddess of weaving
Major cult centerBabylon, possibly Umma
Animalspossibly spiders
Genealogy
SpouseNinkurra

Uttu(𒋳𒌆 TAG.TUG₂) was a Mesopotamian goddess associated with weaving. It has been suggested that she was connected with spiders, though the evidence is limited to a single text which might reflect scribal speculation. She was worshiped in Babylon and possibly in Early Dynastic Umma. She appears in multiple myths, such as Enki and Ninhursag and Enki and the World Order.

Name and character

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It has been argued that Uttu was envisioned as a spider spinning a web, but the evidence in favor of this view is limited.

Uttu's name was written TAG×TÙG, with the sign TAG (usually pronounced as tuku) referring to the action of weaving cloth.[1] The word uttu could also denote a part of a loom.[1] It is also possible that the name dTAG.NUN should be read as Uttu,[1] though Joan Goodnick Westenholz rejected this interpretation and instead assumed that dTAG.NUN was one of the multiple writings of the name of Bizilla or a closely related goddess who like her came to be associated with Nanaya in later sources.[2]

Uttu was regarded as the goddess of weaving.[3] According to an esoteric explanatory text which links various materials with gods, she could be associated with colored wool.[4]

Uttu and spiders

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Thorkild Jacobsen argued that Uttu was envisioned as a spider spinning a web.[5] However, the connection between Uttu and spiders, or more precisely between her name and the Akkadian word ettūtu ("spider"), is limited to a single text, and it might represent a "learned etymology" (scribal speculation),[3] a folk etymology[1] or simply rely on the terms being nearly homophonous.[6] Two copies of the text contain slightly different versions of the same passage, "the handiwork of a spider (ettūtu) will be steady in his house," or "the handiwork of Uttu will be steady in his house."[7] Ettūtu was only one of the words for spiders present in Akkadian texts, the other two being anzūzu (written ŠÈ.GUR4) and possibly lummû.[3] In Sumerian, spiders were known as aš, aš5, lùm or si14.[3] In Mesopotamian literature spiders are mostly attested in proverbs, with a particularly well attested one describing a spider (ŠÈ.GUR4) putting a ḫamitu insect in fetters and then cutting it into pieces after it acted as a witness in a lawsuit against a kuzāzu insect.[3] Most likely the meaning of it was that an evildoer should not act as a witness.[3] Another proverb mentions a spider (ettūtu) which prepared a net to catch a fly but ended up threatened itself by a lizard, possibly meaning that one responsible for evil deeds will be eventually defeated by a greater force.[3] Spiders also occur as an art motif on Early Dynastic seals associated with female weavers.[3]

Worship

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Uttu was worshiped in the E-ešgar, "house of work assignment," which was a part of the Esagil temple complex in Babylon.[8]

dTAG.NUN, who might be the same deity as Uttu, had a temple in Umma in the Early Dynastic period,[1] built by king Il.[9] dTAG.NUN is also attested in a theophoric name, Ur-dTAG.NUN.[1]

Two bilingual Sumero-Akkadian incantations known from the neo-Assyrian period mention Uttu.[10] In both cases, she is described cooperating with Inanna on spinning yarn.[10]

Mythology

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According to the myth Enki and Ninhursag, Uttu's parents were Enki and Ninkurra.[11] In a late tradition, Ninkurra was instead a male deity and Uttu's husband.[1] A variant of Enki and Ninhursag makes Ninkurra Uttu's grandmother and Ninimma her mother.[11] Enki is also addressed as Uttu's father in a Neo-Assyrian incantation.[1] However, another late text documents a tradition in which her father was Anu.[12] In the late god list An = Anu ša amēli, Uttu is equated with Enki, which reflects a theological phenomenon of reinterpreting originally distinct deities responsible for specific professions as aspects of him even if they were originally viewed as female.[13]

In Enki and Ninhursag, Uttu is the final goddess Enki (aided by his sukkal Isimud[14]) tries to seduce while engaging in a series of incestuous encounters with his descendants (Ninšar, Ninkurra, in a variant of the text Ninimma, and finally Uttu).[11] Unlike the other goddesses, Uttu receives advice from Ninhursag,[11] and probably attempts to trick Enki with a false promise of marriage under the condition that he will supply her with fresh produce.[15] While she is initially successful, Enki manages to obtain the requested cucumbers, apples and grapes from a farmer.[15] He approaches her for a second time disguised as a gardener and this time Uttu becomes pregnant.[16] Ninhursag intervenes and manages to remove Enki's seed from Uttu's body, which breaks the cycle of incestuous relationships.[10] The scene is more detailed than the previous encounters between Enki and his daughters in the same myth.[10] Curiously, the narrative makes no reference to Uttu's association with weaving.[10]

Uttu also appears in the myth Enki and the World Order, where she is the last of the deities awaiting the assignment of a domain.[10] She is called a "conscientious woman" and "the silent one".[10] It has been pointed out that both in Enki and Ninhursag and in Enki and the World Order, Uttu's appearance marks a shift in the narrative: after her encounter with Enki in the former myth, the cycle of Enki's attempts at seducing and taking advantage of the goddesses ends, while in the latter, after her destiny is declared, Inanna and her complaints about not receiving an appropriate share of the universe take the center stage.[10]

A reference to Uttu is also known from the debate poem The Debate between Grain and Sheep, which describes a distant time before she started to weave, symbolically representing the age before the advent of civilisation and technology.[10]

References

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Uttu

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Uttu (Sumerian: 𒋳𒌆 TAG.TUG₂) was a Mesopotamian primarily associated with , spinning, and the domestic crafts of women in ancient Sumerian mythology. As the patron of production, she symbolized the ideal and homemaker, overseeing tasks such as the creation of multicolored threads and garments that were essential to Sumerian society. Her name, derived from the Sumerian word for "web" or "," underscored her role in these arts, and she was depicted as a conscientious figure managing the of activities. Uttu appears prominently in key Sumerian myths, where she interacts with major deities and contributes to themes of creation and . In the myth Enki and Ninhursag, she is born as the daughter of (the god of fresh water and wisdom) and Ninkurra after a rapid nine-day gestation, marking her as part of 's lineage of divine offspring. Advised by Ninhursag to guard against 's advances, Uttu nonetheless receives gifts of cucumbers, apples, and grapes from him—symbols of agricultural bounty—before submitting to his seduction; her subsequent distress leads Ninhursag to intervene, removing 's semen from Uttu's body and planting it in the earth, from which vegetation such as trees and plants sprout, thus linking Uttu to the origins of plant and . This episode portrays her as a pivotal figure in the mythological establishment of , though it also highlights her vulnerability within the divine family dynamics. In another composition, Enki and the World Order, assigns Uttu the responsibility of perfecting , including the production of suluhu garments and other textile-related duties, affirming her authority over feminine labor and the organization of societal roles. She also appears in the debate poem Lahar and Ashnan, invoked as the goddess whose yarns enable the weaving of royal cloth, illustrating the role of weaving in the establishment of civilization. Beyond mythology, Uttu was invoked in practical rituals, such as the Surpu incantations, where her expertise in spinning was called upon to release individuals from troubles, reflecting her enduring cultural significance as a protector in domestic and artisanal contexts. Evidence suggests a possible connection to spiders, given the web-like nature of weaving, though direct textual support for this association remains limited; some scholarly interpretations describe her as a "spider-goddess" in relation to her role in creation myths. Worship of Uttu is attested in early Mesopotamian sites, including a temple in Early Dynastic and the E-ešgar sanctuary within Babylon's Esagil complex, indicating her veneration persisted from the third millennium BCE into later periods. Overall, Uttu represents the intersection of craft, , and roles in Sumerian cosmology, embodying the transformative power of women's labor in sustaining both the household and the .

Etymology and Identity

Name Origins

The name Uttu is represented in Sumerian cuneiform as TAG.TÚG (or dTAG.TÚG when denoting the ), a compound sign directly evoking the concept of cloth and associated tools such as looms or threads. This underscores her foundational association with textile production, as the signs literally convey the mechanical process of weaving in Sumerian lexical traditions. Etymologically, Uttu derives from Sumerian vocabulary related to weaving and fabric creation, with TAG referring to the loom or threading action and TÚG denoting garments or woven material, thereby embedding her identity in the cultural significance of craftsmanship from the outset of written records. The term's phonetic rendering as uttu may also overlap with words for spun or interlaced fibers, reinforcing conceptual ties to manual arts central to Mesopotamian society. In Akkadian adaptations, the name appears as ettūtu or uttūtu, which in at least one late composition tentatively links to terms for , suggesting a linguistic evolution toward connotations in bilingual contexts. The usage of Uttu's name traces a trajectory from potential Early Dynastic symbolic allusions in -related iconography to explicit mentions in third-millennium BCE Sumerian myths like and , and extends into Neo-Assyrian bilingual incantations where she features as a divine spinner. This continuity highlights the enduring relevance of her weaving motif across Mesopotamian textual corpora.

Character as Weaver Goddess

Uttu served as the primary Sumerian deity associated with weaving, spinning, and the broader production of textiles, embodying the craftsmanship essential to ancient Mesopotamian society and cosmology. In mythological narratives, she oversaw the intricate processes of transforming raw fibers into usable fabrics, including the selection and preparation of materials for spinning on the spindle, which Enki, the god of wisdom, is said to have perfected as part of the ordered tasks assigned to women. This role positioned her as a guardian of textile arts, integral to the economic and cultural fabric of Sumerian life, where weaving represented both practical labor and divine order. Esoteric Sumerian texts further link Uttu to specialized aspects of textile work, such as the handling of colored wool and loom-based rituals that invoked her for protection and skill in crafting. One such explanatory text associates her directly with multicolored wool, symbolizing the vibrant dyes and patterns in fabric creation, often used in ritual contexts to ensure the quality and auspiciousness of woven goods. These references highlight her involvement in ceremonial practices where weaving served as a metaphor for weaving fate or cosmic harmony, though her domain remained focused on the technical mastery of the loom. In administrative and cosmic order descriptions, Uttu is portrayed as a "conscientious " and "the silent one," emphasizing her diligent and orderly nature in managing palace honors and royal dignities through textile oversight. This depiction underscores her as a reliable figure upholding the meticulous standards of Sumerian and divine , where her weaving expertise contributed to the prestige of kingship and the temple economy. Unlike broader or household deities, Uttu stands out as a specialized patron of fabric creation, distinct in her focus on the skilled labor of spinning and . Her name, derived from the TAG.TÙG, reflects this specialization, evoking terms for garments and coats that indicate her origins.

Attributes and Symbolism

Association with Spiders

The association between the Sumerian goddess Uttu and spiders primarily stems from linguistic and etymological connections in ancient Mesopotamian texts, where her name is linked to the concept of threads akin to . In Akkadian, the word ettūtu (or variants like uttūtu) denotes "," and a learned scribal variant renders Uttu's name as ettutu in a hemerology—a text outlining auspicious days—explicitly tying her identity to the through on web-spinning. This single textual instance, dated to the first millennium BCE, originates the spider motif, equating Uttu's prowess—central to her divine character—with the spider's natural production of intricate threads. During late periods of Mesopotamian scribal tradition, this etymological link inspired further speculation, portraying Uttu as a spider-like figure whose webs symbolized the fabrication of textiles and perhaps broader cosmic order. The shared sign for Uttu's name and the Sumerian term for spider reinforced this interpretation, allowing scribes to envision her in the form of a web-spinning . Such associations appear in lexical lists and mythological commentaries, where the 's web serves as a for or creation, mirroring Uttu's role in crafting garments and veils in myths. In Mesopotamian art, spiders emerge as symbolic motifs potentially representing Uttu, particularly in glyptic scenes on early cylinder seals. Stylized rows of spiders on Jemdet Nasr-period seals (ca. 3100–2900 BCE), such as a red jasper example in the Yale Babylonian Collection, evoke patterns and may allude to her as a cosmic net-weaver, binding elements of fate or the in thread-like designs. These depictions, though not explicitly labeled, align with broader iconographic themes of arachnids as emblems of skillful fabrication, distinct from human weavers yet analogous to Uttu's divine craft. Contemporary scholarship remains divided on the depth of this association, with some experts affirming it as an authentic ancient symbol rooted in the and mythology, while others argue it constitutes retroactive amplified in post-Sumerian interpretations. The tentative nature of the evidence—limited to linguistic puns and sparse artistic hints—highlights ongoing debates about whether Uttu's identity reflects core Sumerian beliefs or later Akkadian elaborations. In Sumerian mythology, Uttu exhibits associations with plants and earth through her demand for agricultural produce as a prerequisite for union, symbolizing and the earth's generative capacity. In the myth of and , Uttu requires to provide her with cucumbers from the , apples from the , and grapes from the before granting him access, portraying her as a figure intertwined with vegetal abundance and reproductive rites. This exchange underscores her nurturing role in relation to earth's bounty, where plant products serve as tokens of and marital cycles. Uttu's position in the fertility cycles further ties her to and growth, as the great-granddaughter of and —key creation deities—her own conception and subsequent impregnation by Enki catalyze the emergence of new life forms. Following Enki's seduction, Ninhursag extracts the semen from Uttu's womb and implants it in the earth, causing eight distinct plants to sprout: the 'tree' plant, the 'honey' plant, the 'vegetable' plant, esparto grass (?), the atutu plant, the actaltal plant, the ...... plant, and the amharu plant (note: plant names vary across translations due to uncertainties in Sumerian terminology). This act links Uttu's reproductive essence to the "fabric" of life, where motifs metaphorically parallel the interlacing of earth's vegetative growth and human , with her symbolism enhancing the image of intricate, life-sustaining patterns. Scholars interpret this sequence as emblematic of Uttu's minor role in cosmic generation, emphasizing how her involvement bridges divine procreation with agricultural renewal. Textual references to Uttu often embed her within motifs of agricultural prosperity, as seen in the Enki and Ninhursag narrative, where her demands and the resulting plant births highlight themes of earth's fecundity without overshadowing her primary weaving domain. In broader Sumerian literature, such vegetal imagery reinforces her connection to the land's productive forces, evoking cycles of sowing and harvesting akin to reproductive processes. Among scholars, Uttu is regarded as a minor figure in the Sumerian pantheon, distinct from prominent goddesses like , due to her specialized ties to plant emergence and earth's nurturing aspects rather than broad domains of love or war. This view positions her as a complementary in fertility hierarchies, embodying localized abundance through her mythic interactions, though interpretations caution against overemphasizing plant associations at the expense of her core weaving identity.

Mythological Appearances

Enki and Ninhursag Narrative

In the Sumerian myth known as and , set in the paradisiacal land of , Uttu emerges as 's daughter through a lineage of rapid divine births initiated by the god's unions with and her offspring. Following 's seductions of (who births Ninsar), Ninsar (who births Ninkurra), and Ninkurra (who births Uttu), the narrative builds to 's pursuit of Uttu herself, warned in advance by about his intentions. To thwart his advances, Uttu demands specific gifts of produce—cucumbers from the garden, apples with their stems, and clusters of grapes—before she will allow him to "have hold of my ." Enki, advised by his vizier , goes to the garden, gathers the requested fruits, and delivers them to Uttu's dwelling by the riverbank, prompting her to rejoice and open her house to him. Once inside, Enki consummates the encounter by pouring semen into Uttu's womb, leading her to conceive; however, she immediately cries out in anguish, exclaiming, "Woe, my thighs," signaling distress from the act. Uttu then turns to for aid, who removes the semen from Uttu's thighs and plants it in Dilmun's pure earth, from which eight distinct plants sprout, symbolizing unintended generative consequences. Enki, drawn to the new growth, devours the plants one by one, which afflicts him with debilitating pains in eight corresponding body parts—from his jaw to his loins—prompting Ninhursag's furious curse that leaves him writhing. The resolution comes through Ninhursag's intervention, as she creates healing deities for each afflicted area, including Ninti ("Lady of the Rib") born from Enki's rib to mend that site, restoring harmony to Dilmun and underscoring themes of creation through affliction. Uttu's portrayal in this narrative weaves together her identity as a goddess of weaving with broader fertility motifs, portraying the seduction as a craft-like entanglement of desire and growth in Dilmun's pristine environment. The plants demanded and produced evoke agricultural fertility intertwined with Uttu's weaving domain, where patterns of life—much like threads in a loom—emerge from Enki's impulsive acts, highlighting the myth's exploration of divine excess yielding both abundance and disorder. This episode positions Uttu as a pivotal figure in the cycle of reproduction, her agency in demanding gifts and subsequent distress emphasizing the transformative, sometimes perilous, interplay of weaving and botanical vitality in Sumerian cosmology.

Enki and the World Order

In the Sumerian myth Enki and the World Order, composed around the early second millennium BCE, the god organizes the cosmos by assigning specific domains and functions to various deities, thereby establishing harmony and prosperity across heaven and earth. This narrative portrays Enki as the architect of divine and societal order, calling upon the gods to receive their roles in a structured sequence that reflects the interconnectedness of natural, agricultural, and cultural elements. Uttu emerges as a diligent figure within this framework, depicted as eagerly anticipating her place in the cosmic hierarchy, symbolizing the patient readiness of subordinate deities to contribute to Enki's grand design. Uttu is characterized as "the conscientious woman, the silent one," emphasizing her meticulous and orderly nature in association with and crafts, which represent structured creation and domestic harmony. Enki assigns her oversight of women's tasks, including the preparation of fibers for garments and the perfection of adornment, along with the honor of the palace and the dignity of the king, integrating her into the palace's symbolic authority without granting a expansive or autonomous domain like those bestowed on major deities such as Nanna or Utu. This portrayal underscores her essential yet understated contribution to the world's order, where her role in crafts ensures the material foundations of royal and societal life. The myth survives in multiple Old Babylonian manuscripts from sites like and , with textual variants primarily affecting phrasing around assignments but consistently affirming Uttu's passive reception of her function; for instance, some copies elaborate slightly on the textile processes under her purview, while others streamline the description to highlight her silence and diligence. Scholarly analyses interpret this passivity as emblematic of Uttu's vital, supportive status in the pantheon, where her integration into Enki's ordered universe—without prominent powers—reinforces themes of hierarchical dependence and the indispensable role of craftswomen in Mesopotamian cosmology, as seen in studies of gender dynamics in . Enki's role as the assigner briefly positions Uttu in a subordinate relational dynamic, akin to other recipients of his decrees.

References in Other Texts

Uttu appears briefly in the Sumerian disputation poem The Debate between Grain and Sheep (ETCSL 5.3.2), where the text evokes a primordial era before her birth, when no cloth was woven, no looms existed, and humanity lacked garments, underscoring her essential role in the advent of textile production. In various Mesopotamian god lists, Uttu is enumerated among the deities associated with crafts, often equated or linked to in theological reinterpretations that highlight her supportive function in weaving and related arts. Incidental mentions also occur in Sumerian and Akkadian incantations, where she is invoked as a divine aiding in textile-related rituals, such as preparing threads for protective garments. Neo-Assyrian bilingual incantations from the first millennium BCE portray Uttu collaborating with (Ištar) in spinning yarn and , as in texts where Uttu handles the thread while Ištar readies it for a skilled to craft clothing, serving to release individuals from spells or provide safeguarding through crafted items. These invocations blend her expertise with Inanna's authority for protective purposes in magical practices. In post-Sumerian literature, particularly Akkadian and later Babylonian/Assyrian compositions, Uttu's prominence wanes, shifting from a narrative figure in early myths to a more ancillary role in specialized texts like incantations and explanatory lists, reflecting a broader theological consolidation where major deities like and absorb or overshadow domain-specific functions. This evolution underscores her enduring but diminished cultural footprint as a craft patroness beyond core Sumerian narratives.

Worship and Cult

Temples and Worship Sites

The primary site of worship for Uttu was the E-ešgar, or "House of the Work Assignment," located within the Esagil temple complex in . This served as her dedicated seat, as attested in Babylonian temple inventories and ritual texts from the first millennium BCE. records from Esagil, including lists of divine abodes, confirm her presence alongside major deities in this central cultic hub, though specific dedications to her appear limited. An earlier possible temple for Uttu, potentially under the name dTAG.NUN, existed in the city of during the Early Dynastic period (ca. 2600–2350 BCE). This structure was constructed by King Il of , as recorded on a dedicatory inscription that links the building to the weaving goddess. The identification of dTAG.NUN with Uttu is supported by administrative and lexical texts from the site, which associate the deity with crafts and textiles. Such records provide evidence of royal patronage and offerings at Umma's cult centers, though archaeological remains of the temple itself have not been conclusively identified. Uttu's worship was geographically confined to southern , with known centers in and reflecting her ties to urban textile production and fertility in Sumerian and Babylonian traditions.

Rituals and Incantations

In Mesopotamian religious practice, Uttu was invoked in Neo-Assyrian incantations as part of apotropaic s designed to ward off evil, curses, and misfortune through symbolic acts of binding and purification. These incantations, preserved in tablets from the at , frequently pair Uttu with the goddess (Akkadian Ištar) in the context of spinning yarn or thread, representing the creation of protective barriers against malevolent forces. A notable example appears in the Šurpu series, a comprehensive collection of Sumerian and Akkadian spells performed by exorcists (asipu) to remove divine sanctions and evil influences via recitations, libations, and burnings. In Šurpu tablets V-VI, lines 144–171, the describes Uttu taking the thread into her hand while Ištar prepares and straightens it, evoking the of a magical net to ensnare and neutralize harm: "Incantation: Uttu took the thread into her hand, Ištar made the thread of Uttu ready." This bilingual Sumero-Akkadian text underscores Uttu's role as patroness of , transforming the act of spinning into a mechanism for . Such invocations extended to esoteric and contexts, where Uttu's association with and growth informed spells for safeguarding birth and agricultural . Tablets from the Šurpu series integrate her imagery in domestic and purificatory rites, invoking her to bind chaotic elements akin to threading a , thereby promoting harmony in and cultivation. For instance, an on a Šurpu tablet depicts Uttu and Ištar spinning a thick, multicolored thread, symbolizing the interlacing of divine order to avert calamity in healing procedures or fertility ceremonies. Evidence from these Neo-Assyrian exemplars (ca. BCE) highlights her practical cultic role, with recitations adapted for temple or settings to invoke aid in crafts, ensuring bountiful yields from weaving, birth, and life.

References

  1. https://as.nyu.edu/content/dam/nyu-as/faculty/documents/RWrightSumerian_and_Akkadian_Industries_2013.pdf
  2. https://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/gods/ladies/ladyuttu.html
  3. https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr111.htm
  4. https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr113.htm
  5. https://rosa.uniroma1.it/rosa01/medicina_nei_secoli/article/download/1565/1443
  6. https://www.mifologia.com/pantheons/sumerian-pantheon/uttu/
  7. http://faculty.washington.edu/snoegel/PDFs/articles/noegel-women-asherah-cbq-83-2021.pdf
  8. https://tuscriaturas.home.blog/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/encyclopedia-of-gods-demons-and-symbols-of-ancient-mesopotamia-an-illustrated-dictionary-jeremy-black-anthony-green.pdf
  9. https://www.mifologia.com/uttu-sumerian-goddess/
  10. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25194060
  11. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27288892
  12. https://tuscriaturasarchivos.home.blog/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/A-Concise-Dictionary-of-Akkadian.pdf
  13. http://faculty.washington.edu/snoegel/PDFs/articles/noegel-looms-cbq-79-2017.pdf
  14. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781614512639-020/html
  15. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/3718693
  16. https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004356771/BP000021.xml
  17. https://www.academia.edu/40152526/Spinne_spider_Reallexikon_der_Assyriologie_und_Vorderasiatischen_Arch%C3%A4ologie_vol_12_7_8_2011_646
  18. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/512211
  19. https://www.academia.edu/69334265/ENKI_and_NINHURSAG_a_REHABILITATION
  20. https://iranvarjavand.ir/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/The-Literature-of-Ancient-Sumer-by-Jeremy-Black-Graham-Cunningham-Eleanor-Robson-Gabor-Zolyomi-z-lib.org_.pdf
  21. https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section5/tr532.htm
  22. https://www.academia.edu/27631505/God_lists_from_Old_Babylonian_Nippur_in_the_University_Museum_Philadelphia_AOAT_362_
  23. https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/btto/cbd/qpn/E.html
  24. https://isac-idb.uchicago.edu/id/2d055441-742a-4a6f-bb99-c5d1c286aea8
  25. https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/288986/azu_td_9927522_sip1_m.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=1
  26. https://brill.com/view/book/9789004435186/BP000013.xml
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