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Translations of
Vitarka
Englishthought[1]
applied thought[2]
inquiry[3]
initial inquiry[4]
applied attention[2]
initial mental application[5]
initial intellectual investigative intent[5]
reflection[1]
Sanskritवितर्क
Pali𑀯𑀺𑀢𑀓𑁆𑀓
Burmeseဝိစာရ
Chinese尋 (T) / 寻 (S)
Japanese尋
(Rōmaji: jin)
Korean심
(RR: sim)
Tibetanརྟོག་པ།
(Wylie: rtog pa;
THL: tokpa)
Thaiวิตก
(RTGS: witok)
VietnameseTầm (tìm)
Glossary of Buddhism
Translations of
Vicāra
Englishexamination[1]
investigation[3][4]
subsequent discursive reasoning and thought[5]
investigating what has been focused on by vitakka[5]
Sanskritvicāra, विचार
Palivicāra, 𑀯𑀺𑀘𑀸𑀭
Chinese伺 (T) / 伺 (S)
Japanese伺
(Rōmaji: shi)
Korean사
(RR: sa)
Tibetanདཔྱོད་པ།
(Wylie: dpyod pa;
THL: chöpa)
Thaiวิจาร
(RTGS: wichan)
VietnameseTứ (Hán Việt): dò xét
Glossary of Buddhism
Part of Theravāda Abhidhamma
52 Cetasikas
Theravāda Buddhism
7 universal (sabbacittasādhāraṇa)
6 occasional (pakiṇṇaka)
14 unwholesome (akusala)
25 beautiful (sobhana)
Vitarka mudrā, Tarim Basin, 9th century

In Buddhism, vitarka (वितर्क; Pali: 𑀯𑀺𑀢𑀓𑁆𑀓, romanized: vitakka; Tibetan: རྟོག་པ།, Wylie: rtog pa, THL: tokpa), "applied thought,"[2](initial) inquiry,"[3][4] and vicāra (विचार and 𑀯𑀺𑀘𑀸𑀭; Tibetan: དཔྱོད་པ།, Wylie: dpyod pa, THL: chöpa), "investigating what has been focused on by vitakka,[5] are qualities or elements of the first dhyāna or jhāna.

In the Pali canon, Vitakka-vicāra form one expression, which refers to directing one's thought or attention on an object (vitarka) and investigating it (vicāra),[6][7][8][9][10] "breaking it down into its functional components" to understand it [and] distinguishing the multitude of conditioning factors implicated in a phenomenal event."[11]

The later Theravada commentarial tradition, as represented by Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga, interprets vitarka and vicāra as the initial and sustained application of attention to a meditational object, which culminates in the stilling of the mind. According to Fox and Bucknell vitarka-vicāra may also refer to "the normal process of discursive thought," which is quieted through absorption in the second jhāna.[12][13]

Etymology

[edit]

Vitarka (Sanskrit: वितर्क ) - "thoughts,"[14][2] "applied thought,"[15][2] "applied attention,"[2] "inquiry,"[3] "initial inquiry,"[4] "initial mental application, or initial intellectual investigative intent."[5] Its roots are:

  • वि vi, a prefix to verbs and nouns it expresses;
  • तर्क tarka, "reasoning, inquiry."[16]

Vitarka may refer to mental activities that are manifest both in normal consciousness and in the first stage of dhyana.[2] According to Buswel and Lopez, in general, it means "thought," "applied thought," or "distracted thoughts."[2] According to Bhikkhu Bodhi, "In the Suttas, the word Vittaka is often used in the loose sense of thought, but in the Abhidhamma it is used in a precise technical sense to mean the mental factor that mounts or directs the mind towards an object."[14]

Vicāra (Sanskrit: विचार) - "investigation,"[3][4] "subsequent discursive reasoning and thought, i.e., investigating what has been focused on by vitakka."[5] Its roots are:

  • वि vi, a prefix to verbs and nouns it expresses;
  • चर् car, to move, roam, obtain knowledge of.[17]

Vitarka investigates things roughly, while vicāra investigates things exactly.[7][8][9][10] According to Dan Lusthaus, it is

Mental factors in meditation

[edit]
Main article: Rūpa jhānas

Vitarka and vicāra are two of the mental factors (cetasika) present during the first dhyāna (Pali: jhāna), and which are absent in the higher jhanas.[18][19] According to Shankman, "two distinct meanings are suggested [...] one indicating mental activities such as thinking, reflecting, and so on, and the other referring to the mental activity of connecting and sustaining the attention on a meditation object."[1]

Investigation

[edit]

According to Dan Lusthaus, vitarka-vicāra is analytic scrutiny, a form of prajna. It "involves focusing on [something] and then breaking it down into its functional components" to understand it, "distinguishing the multitude of conditioning factors implicated in a phenomenal event."[11]

According to Polak, in the Pali Canon vitarka and vicāra are mostly related to thinking about the sense-impressions, which give rise to further egoistical thought and action.[20] The stilling of this thinking fits into the Buddhist training of sense-withdrawal and right effort, culminating in the equanimity and mindfulness of dhyana-practice.[20][21]

Ulrich Timme Kragh explains vitarka (discernment) and vicāra (discursiveness), as understood by the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra, thus: discernment is "the cognitive operation that is responsible for ascertaining what is perceived by the senses by initially labeling it with a name", while discursiveness is "the subsequent conceptual operation of deciding whether the perceived sense-object is desirable and what course of action one might want to take in relation to it".[22]

According to Chaicen, "Samadhi with general examination and specific in-depth investigation means getting rid of the not virtuous dharmas, such as greedy desire and hatred, to stay in joy and pleasure caused by nonarising, and to enter the first meditation and fully dwell in it."[23]

Commentatorial tradition

[edit]

According to Stuart-Fox, the Abhidhamma separated vitarka from vicāra, and ekaggatā (onepointedness) was added to the description first jhāna to give an equal number of five hindrances and five antidotes.[24] The commentarial tradition regards the qualities of the first jhāna to be antidotes to the five hindrances, and ekaggatā may have been added to the first jhāna to give exactly five anti-dotes for the five hindrances.[25][note 1]

While initially simply referring to thought, which is present at the onset of dhyāna, the terms vitarka and vicāra were re-interpreted by the developing Abhidharma and commentarial tradition. In Theravāda, vitarka is one of the mental factors that apprehend the quality of an object. It is the "initial application of attention"[2] or the mind to its object,[19] while vicāra is the sustained application of the mind on an object.[14] Vitarka is regarded in the Theravāda tradition as an antidote for thina-middha (sloth and torpor), one of the five hindrances.[14]

Normal process of discursive thought

[edit]

According to Roderick S. Bucknell, "vitakka-vicāra, the factor that particularly characterizes the first jhāna, is probably nothing other than the normal process of discursive thought, the familiar but usually unnoticed stream of mental imagery and verbalization".[18][note 2]

Martin Stuart-Fox explains, referring to Rhys Davids and Stede, when vitarka-vicāra are mentioned in tandem, they are one expression, "to cover all varieties of thinking, including sustained and focused thought. It is thinking in this inclusive sense that the meditator suppresses through concentration when he attains one-ness of mind and thus moves from first to second jhāna".[12]

Yogacara

[edit]

The Yogacara term manas means both "intentionality"[26] or 'self-centered thinking',[27] and "discriminative thinking" (vikalpa). The process of meditation aims at "non-thinking," stopping both these cognitive processes.[26]

Vitarka Mudrā

[edit]

The Vitarka mudrā, "mudra of discussion," expresses vitarka, joining the tips of the thumb and the index together, and keeping the other fingers straight. This mudra has a great number of variants in Mahāyāna Buddhism, and is also known as Prajñāliṅganabhinaya and Vyākhyāna mudrā ("mudra of explanation"). The Vitarka mudrā is thought to symbolize teaching and instruction and is associated with significant moments in the Buddha's life, such as his first discourse on the Four Noble Truths and the miracle at Sravasti, where he revealed his divine form. Initially depicted with the right hand, since the 8th century CE, it has also been represented using the left hand.[28]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]

Sources

[edit]
  • Arbel, Keren (2017), Early Buddhist Meditation: The Four Jhanas as the Actualization of Insight, Routledge, doi:10.4324/9781315676043, ISBN 9781317383994
  • Berzin, Alexander (2006), Primary Minds and the 51 Mental Factors
  • Bhikkhu Bodhi (2003), A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, Pariyatti Publishing
  • Bucknell, Roderick S. (Winter 1993), "Reinterpreting the Jhanas", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 16 (2)
  • Buswell; Lopez (2013), The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, Princeton University Press
  • Chen, Naichen (2017), The Great Prajna Paramita Sutra, Volume 1, Wheatmark
  • Fox, Martin Stuart (1989), "Jhana and Buddhist Scholasticism", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 12 (2)
  • Guenther, Herbert V.; Kawamura, Leslie S. (1975), Mind in Buddhist Psychology: A Translation of Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan's "The Necklace of Clear Understanding" (Kindle ed.), Dharma Publishing
  • Kalupahana, David J. (1992), The Principles of Buddhist Psychology, Delhi: ri Satguru Publications
  • Keown, Damien (2004), A Dictionary of Buddhism, Oxford University Press
  • Kunsang, Erik Pema (2004), Gateway to Knowledge, Vol. 1, North Atlantic Books
  • Lusthaus, Dan (2002), Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch'eng Wei-shih Lun, Routledge
  • Polak, Grzegorz (2011), Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology, UMCS
  • Rhys-Davids, T.W.; Stede, William, eds. (1921–25), The Pali Text Society's Pali–English dictionary, Pali Text Society), archived from the original on 2012-07-08, retrieved 2021-02-20
  • Sangpo, Gelong Lodro; Dhammajoti, Bhikkhu K.L. (2012), Abhidharmakosa-Bhasya of Vasubandhu: Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass
  • Shankman, Richard (2008), The Experience of Samadhi, Shambhala Publications
  • Wayman, Alex (1997), "Introduction", Calming the Mind and Discerning the Real: Buddhist Meditation and the Middle View, from the Lam Rim Chen Mo Tson-kha-pa, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
  • Zhu, Rui (2005). "Distinguishing Sōtō and Rinzai Zen: Manas and the Mental Mechanics of Meditation". Philosophy East and West. 55 (3): 426–446. doi:10.1353/pew.2005.0031. ISSN 0031-8221. JSTOR 4487969.
[edit]
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Vitarka-vicāra

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In practice, vitarka-vicāra (Pāli: vitakka-vicāra; Sanskrit: vitarka-vicāra) denotes the paired mental factors of initial application of thought (vitarka or vitakka) and sustained application or examination (vicāra), which direct and maintain the mind's attention on a chosen meditation object during the first stage of meditative absorption, known as the first jhāna or dhyāna. These factors play a crucial role in the progression of concentration (samādhi), enabling the practitioner to withdraw from sensory distractions and establish focused awareness, yet they represent coarser mental activities that must be transcended for deeper states. In the first jhāna, vitarka involves the initial directing or "laying hold" of the mind toward the object, akin to applying effort to fix attention, while vicāra sustains this engagement through subtle examination or scrutiny, preventing the mind from wandering. Together, they facilitate the arising of joy (pīti) and happiness (sukha), hallmarks of this absorption, but are not equivalent to ordinary discursive thinking; rather, they are refined processes supporting unification of mind. The cessation of vitarka-vicāra marks entry into the second jhāna, where the mind achieves greater stillness and unification without these applicative factors, often described as "" in early discourses. This transition underscores their temporary utility in meditative development, as elaborated in Pāli suttas like the Anupada Sutta (MN 111) and Abhidhamma analyses, where they are classified among the universal mental concomitants but specifically highlighted in jhāna contexts. In broader Buddhist psychology, vitarka-vicāra illustrate the cultivation of wholesome mental states, contributing to (vipassanā) when integrated with practices, though their precise nuances vary slightly across Theravāda and other traditions.

Etymology and Definitions

Etymology

The terms vitarka and vicāra originate in Sanskrit, with vitarka derived from the prefix vi- (indicating intensity or separation) combined with tarka (reasoning, conjecture, or speculation), yielding meanings such as "deliberate consideration" or "applied reasoning." Similarly, vicāra stems from vi- and the root car (to move or roam), connoting "sustained examination" or "mental wandering." In , the canonical language of early , these correspond to vitakka (initial application of thought) and vicāra (sustained maintenance of thought), as evidenced in texts like the Dhammasaṅgaṇī where vitakka denotes fixing the mind on an object and vicāra implies exploration or investigation. These Pali forms appear frequently in the Nikāyas, such as the , paired to describe mental processes in meditative contexts. The evolution of these terms traces back to ancient Indian languages, influenced by , where tarka relates to philosophical debate and logical , as seen in early speculative traditions that prefigure their use in Buddhist and yogic frameworks.

Core Definitions

In , vitarka (Pāli: vitakka) is defined as the initial, gross application of the mind to a meditation object, functioning as the directing or placing of onto that object. This mental factor initiates focus by coarsely examining or conceiving the object, akin to a guide leading the mind to its target. Vicāra (Pāli: vicāra), in contrast, represents the finer, sustained application of the mind, involving subtle , , or investigation of the object once has been directed. It sustains the mental through continued discernment, providing a more refined anchoring of . The distinction between vitarka and vicāra lies in their coarseness and continuity: vitarka is the coarser, initiatory process of gross mental application, while vicāra is the more subtle, continuative process that examines and sustains the focus. Both are classified as indeterminate (aniyata) mental factors in systems, such as the Abhidharmakośa, where they play essential roles in cognitive and meditative processes. These factors are explicitly listed as components of the first jhāna (absorption) in the Anupada Sutta (MN 111), where describes entering the first absorption "while placing the mind and keeping it connected," corresponding to vitakka and vicāra, alongside , , and unification of mind.

Role in Meditation

In Dhyana/Jhana Stages

In the first dhyāna (Pāli: jhāna), vitarka (initial applied thought) and vicāra (sustained thought) are active mental factors that facilitate entry into the meditative state, accompanying (pīti) and (sukha) born of seclusion from sensual pleasures and unwholesome states. These factors provide the necessary access concentration, directing and maintaining the mind on the object while generating initial joy and pleasure. As concentration deepens, vitarka and vicāra are abandoned in the second dhyāna, where the mind achieves unification (ekaggatā) without applied and sustained thought, relying instead on and happiness born of samādhi. This subsiding marks a transition to a more refined, one-pointed absorption free from the coarser discursive elements of the initial stage. Within the framework of the five jhānas in the Theravāda fivefold scheme of rūpa (form) absorptions, vitarka and vicāra are exclusive to the first stage, contrasting with the progressive refinement in higher stages all involving form: the third emphasizes happiness without , the fourth features fading happiness with emerging (upekkhā) and , and the fifth is characterized by pure and one-pointedness. These descriptions are drawn from canonical texts, including the Samyutta Nikāya (SN 45.8), which outlines right concentration through the jhānas, and the (DN 22), detailing their factors in the context of the .

Functions as Mental Factors

In practice, vitarka (Pāli: vitakka) functions as the initial application of thought, directing the mind toward a chosen meditative object and thereby countering distractions. This mental factor serves as a primary to and (thīna-middha), one of the five hindrances, by energizing the mind and inhibiting dullness through focused application. Vicāra, the sustained application of thought, complements vitarka by maintaining on the object through subtle examination and investigation, preventing mental scattering and fostering stability. This sustaining role supports the gradual development of prajñā (insight) by enabling deeper discernment of the object's qualities without proliferation of unrelated thoughts. Vitarka and vicāra operate interdependently to balance effort and stability in access concentration (upacāra samādhi), where vitarka initiates contact with the object and vicāra anchors the mind, facilitating the transition toward absorption; however, their inherent grossness—vitarka being coarser and vicāra subtler—renders them temporary factors that must be transcended for higher meditative states. They are present together in the first jhāna stage. In analysis, vitarka and vicāra are classified as volitional formations () within the aggregate of mental formations, functioning as universal mental factors (cetasikas) that arise concurrently with . When directed toward wholesome objects, such as qualities of or non-harm, they assume an ethical (kusala) nature, contributing to meritorious mental processes.

Interpretations Across Traditions

Theravada Commentaries

In the Theravada tradition, the by (5th century CE) provides a detailed elaboration on vitakka (applied thought) and vicāra (sustained thought) as key mental factors in the development of jhāna meditation. Vitakka is described as the initial directing of the mind toward the meditation object, functioning like a bird spreading its wings to take flight or a monkey reaching for a fruit, striking or applying the mind to the object with effortful aim. Vicāra, in contrast, sustains this application by keeping the mind anchored on the object, akin to the bird planing steadily in flight or the monkey holding onto the branch, exerting a continued but subtler pressure to prevent wandering. These definitions build upon canonical suttas, such as the Anupada Sutta (MN 111), where vitakka-vicāra are listed as factors of the first jhāna. The outlines practical methods for cultivating vitakka and vicāra through mindfulness of breathing (), a foundational technique for accessing jhāna and overcoming the five hindrances. By repeatedly directing to the breath at the nostrils (vitakka) and sustaining it there amid distractions (vicāra), meditators develop concentration that suppresses the hindrances—sensual desire, ill will, sloth-torpor, restlessness-worry, and doubt—for unhindered access to the first jhāna. This cultivation involves preparatory stages like guarding the sense doors and reflecting on the dangers of hindrances, leading to the temporary suppression of all five for unhindered access to the first jhāna. In the progression through the jhānas, the emphasizes the abandonment of these factors due to their gross nature relative to subtler ones like (pīti) and (sukha). In the standard fourfold reckoning, both vitakka and vicāra are relinquished together upon entering the second jhāna, where the mind achieves greater tranquility through unification without these applicative factors. In the fivefold reckoning, vitakka is abandoned first in a second jhāna sustained by vicāra alone, with vicāra then fading in the third jhāna, allowing pīti to dominate without discursive support, as the mind becomes increasingly unified and serene. This abandonment is not rejection but refinement, preparing the meditator for vipassanā . Theravada commentaries like the Visuddhimagga integrate vitakka-vicāra into the broader path by positioning them as preliminary tools for samatha concentration that facilitate vipassanā, the direct contemplation of impermanence, suffering, and non-self. Once jhāna purity is attained, these factors support the initial stages of insight by stabilizing awareness on phenomena, but they are transcended as insight deepens beyond conceptual application into equanimous wisdom. This emphasis reflects Theravada's sutta-based approach, prioritizing jhāna as a vehicle for liberation rather than an end in itself.

Mahayana and Yogacara

In Buddhism, vitarka and vicāra evolve from their roles as gross mental factors in early meditative absorption to instruments for cultivating into (śūnyatā), emphasizing their utility in deconstructing dualistic perceptions rather than simple suppression. This shift reflects a broader philosophical orientation toward transforming afflictive cognition into wisdom, where these factors facilitate analytical on the interdependent and non-substantial nature of phenomena. In the school, particularly in Asanga's texts from the CE, vitarka and vicāra are closely linked to the afflicted mind (manas), representing aspects of and discriminative thinking that underpin (vikalpa). Here, vitarka functions as gross discernment, singling out an object and directing attention toward it, while vicāra involves subtle discrimination, repeatedly examining and scrutinizing that object to sustain engagement. These processes are integral to the mind's constructive activity, but in , they are refined to reveal the mind-only (cittamātra) nature of reality, ultimately aiming for non-abiding nirvikalpa awareness—a non-conceptual free from subject-object duality. The , attributed to , elaborates vitarka as the coarser mode of initial cognitive application and vicāra as its subtler counterpart, both of which must be transcended in advanced samādhi to access direct realization of . Unlike the Theravāda tradition's focus on their progressive abandonment in higher dhyāna stages, stresses their transformation into non-afflicted forms that support insight, enabling the deconstruction of inherent existence and the cultivation of . This approach underscores Mahayana's integration of these factors into a soteriological framework oriented toward universal liberation.

In Yoga Sutra and Other Indian Traditions

In Patañjali's Yoga Sūtra, composed between the 2nd century BCE and the 4th century CE, vitarka and vicāra represent key cognitive stages within samprajñāta samādhi, the cognitive form of meditative absorption. Vitarka denotes gross-level reasoning or focused on tangible objects, such as physical elements or organs, as described in savitarka samāpatti, where the meditator engages the object's form through deliberate mental application. Vicāra follows as a subtler form of examination, shifting attention to abstract or internal aspects of the object, such as subtle essences or tanmātras (primordial elements), in the savicāra stage. These processes are outlined in Yoga Sūtra 1.17, which delineates samprajñāta samādhi as progressing through vitarka, vicāra, ānanda (bliss), and asmitā (I-am-ness). Further elaboration appears in Yoga Sūtra 1.41–46, which details the reflective absorptions: savitarka involves conceptual on gross objects, while nirvitarka transcends such for direct ; similarly, savicāra entails analytical reflection on subtle objects, and nirvicāra achieves non-conceptual into their underlying . In this progression, both vitarka and vicāra are eventually relinquished in asmitā samādhi, yielding pure awareness of the self (puruṣa) as distinct from the material principle (), emphasizing the dualistic metaphysics central to . This abandonment facilitates the dissolution of mental modifications, contrasting with Buddhist jhāna stages by integrating puruṣa-prakṛti discrimination as the goal of liberation. Beyond the Yoga Sūtra, vitarka and vicāra appear as cognitive faculties in Sāṃkhya philosophy, the foundational metaphysics for Patañjali's system, where they contribute to discriminative knowledge (viveka-khyāti) by analyzing the evolutes of from gross to subtle levels. These concepts also influenced later tantric practices in non-Buddhist traditions, such as Śaiva and Śākta , where vitarka supports initial mental construction in visualization, aiding the practitioner's focus on forms to channel subtle energies.

Discursive Thought and Everyday Cognition

In ordinary , vitarka represents the initial application of the mind to an object, akin to the striking or directing of toward a topic or idea, while vicāra involves the sustained examination or elaboration of that object through discursive reasoning. This process mirrors everyday problem-solving, where vitarka initiates focus on a —such as considering a decision—and vicāra extends it through ruminative , maintaining engagement without necessarily leading to resolution. In daily mental life, unchecked vitarka-vicāra can contribute to mental proliferation, known as papañca, where initial thoughts expand into obsessive patterns that reinforce attachment, aversion, and . This proliferation arises when discursive elaboration, driven by craving or , transforms neutral into emotionally charged narratives, perpetuating cycles of reactivity in routine experiences like interpersonal conflicts or planning. From the perspective, vitarka and vicāra function as occasional mental factors (pakinnaka cetasikas) present in many moments of , facilitating the gross and sustained aspects of thought in unrefined states; formal practices aim to refine these factors to support deeper into mental processes. They operate across ethical contexts, appearing in wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral cognitions, but in everyday usage, they remain coarse, prone to distraction without disciplined application. Modern psychological interpretations draw parallels between vitarka-vicāra and processes like directed , where vitarka aligns with initial attentional capture, and vicāra with sustained akin to operations that hold and manipulate information over time, though these analogies emphasize functional similarities without positing direct equivalence. Such comparisons highlight how these mental factors underpin in non-meditative tasks, such as learning or decision-making, by enabling focused yet adaptable thought.

Vitarka Mudrā

The Vitarka Mudrā is a hand gesture commonly depicted in Buddhist , characterized by the right hand raised to chest level with the palm facing outward, the thumb and joined to form a circle, and the remaining three fingers extended upward. This configuration, often mirrored or varied with the left hand in a complementary position, evokes the act of explanation or debate. In its significance, the Vitarka Mudrā represents the Buddha's discourse and the transmission of Buddhist teachings, symbolizing the expounding of the Dharma and intellectual exchange. It is frequently portrayed in statues of the Buddha delivering his first sermon at , where he elucidated the , thereby turning the Wheel of the . The gesture emerged in Gandharan Buddhist art during the 1st to 5th centuries CE, where it indicated the action of preaching and marked a shift toward anthropomorphic representations of influenced by Greco-Roman styles. By the 8th century onward, it became prominent in iconography, appearing widely in sculptures of bodhisattvas and teaching figures across East and Southeast Asian traditions. While sharing an etymological root with the term vitarka denoting "discussion" or "reasoning," the Vitarka Mudrā maintains a primarily ritualistic and symbolic role in , distinct from its cognitive connotations in meditative contexts.

References

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  13. https://encyclopediaofbuddhism.org/wiki/Vic%C4%81ra
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  28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31223
  29. https://smarthistory.org/mudras-in-buddhist-art/
  30. https://tnp.org/mudras-meaning-of-sacred-hand-gestures/
  31. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6231733_Interpretation_of_Hand_Signs_in_Buddhist_Art
  32. https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/6391/vitarka-mudra
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