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The White Rod, White Wand, Rod of Inauguration, or Wand of Sovereignty, in the Irish language variously called the slat na ríghe (rod of kingship) and slat tighearnais (rod of lordship), was the primary symbol of a Gaelic king or lord's legitimate authority and the principal prop used in his inauguration ceremony.[1] First documented in the 12th century Life of Máedóc of Ferns, but assumed to have been used long before then,[2] it is last documented in Ireland in the early 17th century. In Scotland the rod was used into the 13th century for the inauguration of its last Gaelic-speaking kings,[3] and for the Norse-Gaelic Lords of the Isles into the 15th.[4]

While the reception of the rod was in origin a Gaelic cultural feature, following the Viking and Norman invasion of Ireland some foreign families became significantly Gaelicised. A notable example were the great Hiberno-Norman De Burgh magnates styled Mac William Íochtar, who had become completely Gaelicised, ruled over their followers as Irish clan chiefs, and received the White Rod.[5]

Qualities and symbolism

[edit]

The rod was required to be both white and straight, with the colour representing purity and the straightness of justice, according to the account given by Geoffrey Keating.[6]

Even after the collapse of all other institutions of Gaelic Ireland, the Chief Poet of a district, who presided well into 18th-century Munster over the district's Cúirt, a poetic court similar to the Welsh Eisteddfod,[7] would receive a Staff of Office (Irish: Bata na Bachaille), which would later be handed down to his successor.[8]

Ceremony

[edit]

Although the meaning and purpose were always the same, the particulars of the ceremony appear to have varied across the Gaelic world. Most notably, who presented the new lord or king with the rod depended on the history and traditions of each kingdom.[9]

A note to the pedigree of the O'Mahonys at Lambeth, written by Sir George Carew, circa 1600/3:

O'Mahon's country doeth follow the ancient Tanist law of Ireland; and unto whom Mac Carthy Reagh shall give a white rod, he is O'Mahon, or Lord of the Country; but the giving of the rod avails nothing except he be chosen by the followers, nor yet the election without the rod. The MacCarthy Reagh was inaugurated with the same ceremonial with which he inaugurated the O'Mahon and other dependent chiefs. There was a grievance attached to this, and it did not escape the keen eyes of the Cork juries, who presented: 'That when any Lord or Gentleman of the Irishry within this county, is made Lord or Captain of his name or kindredtie, he taketh of every inhabitant, freeholder, and tenant under him, a cow to be paid for erecting a rod in that name.[10]

While describing how Hugh Roe O'Donnell was inaugurated on 3 May 1592, Timothy T. O'Donnell has written:

"The inauguration of the O'Donnell as King of Tyrconnell was both civil and religious in nature. The ceremony took place on the great Rock of Doon which is one mile west of Kilmacrenan, from which one is give a breathtaking view of the surrounding country. It began with the religious rites in the church of the nearby monastery and holy well singing Psalms and hymns in honor of Christ and St. Columba for the success of the Prince's sovereignty. Standing on the Rock surrounded by nobles and his clansmen, the Prince received an oath in which he promised to preserve the Church and the laws of the land. The Prince also vowed to deliver the succession of the realm peacefully to his Tanist (his successor). O'Ferghil, the hereditary warden and abbot of Kilmacrenan, performed the religious ceremony of the inauguration of The O'Donnell. O'Gallagher was the Prince's Marshal and O'Clery was the Ollamh, or scholarly lawyer who presented to him the book containing the laws and customs of the land and the straight white wand symbolizing the moral rectitude demanded of his judgments and rule."[11]

Parliament of Scotland

[edit]

Prior to the Union with England in 1707, there was a Gentleman Usher of the White Rod in the Estates of Parliament in Edinburgh, who had a similar role to the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod in the Parliaments of England, the Kingdom of Great Britain and then the United Kingdom.

The Heritable Usher of the White Rod is the only example of an office of the Crown becoming incorporated as a company. The Walker Trust Act, 1877, incorporated the office into the Walker Trustees, entitling the trustees to charge dues from anyone receiving an honour from the Crown. In 1908 the Society of Knights Bachelor was formed to contest this right, but a Court of Session case the following year confirmed the right of the Walker Trustees to charge recipients of honours. However, the Society of Knights Bachelor won an appeal to the House of Lords in 1911.[12]

The Lord Bishop of Edinburgh, as ex officio chair of the Walker Trustees, is the Heritable Usher of the White Rod, but the role carries no duties.[clarification needed]

See also

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References

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Sources

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

White Rod

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The White Rod, known in Irish as slat na ríghe (rod of kingship) or slat tighearnais (rod of lordship), was a ceremonial serving as the principal of legitimate authority for Gaelic chieftains and lords in medieval and early modern . Typically fashioned as a straight, unadorned staff from pale woods such as or , it symbolized purity, justice, and rightful sovereignty, distinguishing Gaelic inaugurations from continental European coronations that emphasized crowns or . In Gaelic inauguration rituals, conducted at sacred sites like hilltops or inauguration stones from around 1100 to 1600, the White Rod was handed to the elected leader by a tanist or ecclesiastical figure as a core element of the ceremony, alongside oaths, libations, and sometimes the sounding of the Stone of Destiny (). This practice underscored derbfhine elective succession among eligible kin, rejecting in favor of consensus-based selection to ensure capable rule amid tribal confederacies. The rod's use persisted into the sixteenth century, even as English influence eroded native institutions during conflicts like the , after which such symbols waned with the Tudor conquest. Unlike the ebony of British parliamentary tradition, the White Rod embodied indigenous Gaelic ideals of unblemished leadership, with no surviving physical examples but ample attestation in annals and bardic poetry.

Symbolism and Qualities

Physical Characteristics

The White Rod, known in Irish as Slat na Ríghe (rod of kingship), consists of a straight, unadorned wand typically crafted from the pale wood of () or (). Its minimalist design, lacking ornamentation or engravings, underscores themes of purity and impartial rule in Gaelic ceremonial contexts. Historical textual references describe it as a slender staff presented during inaugurations to signify legitimate , with no evidence of standardized dimensions but consistent emphasis on its natural, whitish bark or peeled surface for symbolic cleanliness. Surviving artefactual examples are rare, as the rod was often a perishable, purpose-made item rather than a preserved .

Symbolic Meanings and Interpretations

The White Rod, known in Irish as slat na ríghe (rod of kingship) or slat tighrearnais (rod of lordship), primarily symbolizes the legitimate authority and moral purity of a Gaelic ruler or chieftain. Its unadorned, straight form—typically crafted from white or wood—embodies upright and impartial , distinguishing the holder's rule as free from or deviation. During inauguration ceremonies, presentation of the rod conferred judicial oversight over clan members, underscoring the chieftain's role as arbiter rather than mere . Interpretations of the rod's symbolism emphasize its contrast with martial emblems like the , which represented defense of the realm; the rod instead evoked patriarchal sway and ethical restraint, aligning with Gaelic ideals of where leadership demanded proven rectitude. Historical accounts from –1600 describe it as a "straight white rod" (an slat bhan), evoking ritual purity akin to unblemished offerings in pre-Christian Celtic practices, though adapted in Christianized contexts to signify divinely sanctioned equity. Among Norse-Gaelic lords, such as those of the Isles, the rod reinforced hybrid authority blending Scandinavian assembly traditions with indigenous symbols of , though primary sources prioritize its Gaelic judicial connotation over or phallic motifs seen in unrelated Norse artifacts. Modern revivals, like Clan Buchanan's 2022 inauguration, interpret it as enduring emblem of clan justice, preserving its role without alteration.

Historical Origins

Etymology and Early Evidence

The White Rod, known in Irish Gaelic as slat bhán—where slat denotes a slender staff or and bhán (lenited form of bán) signifies white—emphasizes attributes of purity, straightness, and rectitude in rulership. This highlights the object's symbolic function as an unbiased emblem of authority, contrasting with curved or colored staffs associated with other traditions. Variant designations, such as slat na rígh (rod of the king) or slat tighearnais (rod of lordship), appear in medieval descriptions of ceremonies, underscoring its application to both monarchs and territorial chiefs in Gaelic contexts. Documented evidence for the White Rod first surfaces in 12th- and 13th-century accounts of Irish and inaugurations, where it was ritually conferred upon the selectee to denote legitimate succession and the onset of equitable . In Ireland, early references describe the rod being handed to the inaugurand—often after divesting weapons—during assemblies at hilltop or stone sites, as a pledge of impartial justice devoid of coercion. Scottish usages, linked to and lineages, integrated the rod with enthronement on inauguration mounds until the era of the last Gaelic vernacular kings around 1230, per chronicles of Norse-Gaelic transitions. While textual records postdate the practice's likely origins in pre-literate Celtic assemblies, no archaeological artifacts of the rod itself have been conclusively identified, attributing early attestation to and bardic lore rather than material remains. Comparative Indo-European motifs of wands as tokens appear in Welsh and continental sources from the early medieval period, but Gaelic specificity ties the rod to tanist elections and avoidance of hereditary violence, with continuity evidenced through 15th-century chiefly rites.

Pre-Christian and Cultural Roots

The white rod, as a symbol of legitimate authority in Gaelic society, originated in pre-Christian Celtic traditions of chieftain , where it served as a non-violent of rule emphasizing over coercion. In ancient Irish customs, preserved in legal practices dating to the early centuries CE but reflecting Celtic norms, a straight white or rod was handed to the incoming tanist (heir-designate) or chief during rituals at sites like hilltops or sacred stones, symbolizing purity, rectitude, and the expectation of through equity rather than force. This rod, often of hawthorn or other native wood, was broken or presented alongside a to denote the transition of power, underscoring a cultural preference for symbolic legitimacy rooted in tribal consensus and customary law predating Christian influence in Ireland around the 5th century CE. These practices extended to early Gaelic Scotland via Dál Riata, the 5th–9th century kingdom linking Ireland and western Scotland, where white rods featured in royal enthronements as markers of discretionary rule, distinct from tyrannical wielded power. Accounts of Dál Riata inaugurations describe the rod being placed in the king's hand post-blessing, evoking pre-Christian emphases on just authority amid a society governed by filid (poet-seers) and druidic-like figures who mediated power through oral lore and ritual. The rod's whiteness likely drew from Celtic symbolic associations with sanctity and the , akin to white animals or garments in druidic rites documented by classical authors like , who noted Gallic priests using staffs for authority and around the 1st century BCE. Culturally, the white rod paralleled broader Indo-European motifs of wands or staffs as conduits of divine kingship, seen in Irish mythological cycles like the (codified circa 8th–12th centuries CE from oral traditions), where rods invoked legitimacy without bloodshed. However, direct archaeological evidence remains limited, with most attestations from medieval synthesizing pagan survivals; the rod's role contrasted with more martial symbols, reflecting Gaelic societal structures prioritizing harmony and tanistic over hereditary absolutism. This pre-Christian framework influenced later Norse-Gaelic adaptations, but its core as an emblem of restrained, ethically bound power underscores a causal realism in Celtic governance: authority derived from perceived moral fitness, not mere conquest.

Ceremonial Usage

Inauguration Rituals in Gaelic Tradition

In Gaelic inauguration rituals, known as clannaigheacht or óenach, the white rod (slat na rígh or slat bhan) served as the primary symbol of legitimate authority and just governance, presented to the elected or chief during the ceremonial assembly of the kin group at a sacred site, such as an inauguration mound or stone. The ritual emphasized tanistry-based succession, where the candidate, often pre-designated by the previous ruler, was confirmed by the (royal kin) and placed upon an inauguration stone (leac chinnigh), symbolizing the unyielding foundation of rule. A designated officer, sometimes an ollamh (learned poet or ) or hereditary inaugurator from a subordinate like the O'Hagans for the , then handed the straight, unvarnished white wand—typically crafted from or —to the inaugurand, who stood erect upon the stone. This act, documented in medieval and legal tracts, underscored the expectation of "straight dealing" and purity in , with the rod's unblemished form representing over , as no sword was conferred, implying the clan's voluntary submission under equitable rule. The presentation of the white rod often involved a ritual touching or passing it over the candidate's head, substituting for a in pre-Christian echoes of , before formally granting it as a sceptre-like emblem of . Accompanying this were incantations or oaths recited by the inaugurator, binding the ruler to uphold Brehon laws, protect the tuath (tribal kingdom), and ensure , with the rod embodying the covenant between leader and people. Historical examples include the inaugurations at sites like the Rock of Doon in or Tullahogue Fort, where the rod was integral to affirming overlordship, as in the case of kings from the 11th to 16th centuries, before English suppression of native customs post-1603. Unlike continental European coronations with crowns or anointings, Gaelic rites privileged this minimalist symbol, reflecting indigenous emphases on contractual kingship rooted in early medieval Irish texts like the Senchus Mór, where authority derived from communal acclaim rather than divine right alone. The rod's use persisted into the late medieval period, adapting to Norse-Gaelic influences in but retaining core elements of ritual purity and legitimacy in Irish contexts.

Role in Scottish Parliamentary Proceedings

The of the White Rod served as a ceremonial officer in the (also known as the Estates of Parliament), holding a role analogous to that of the of the in the English Parliament, with responsibilities centered on protocol, order, and royal attendance during sessions held in prior to the Acts of Union 1707. This heritable office, originating in the medieval period and confirmed by parliamentary act in 1686, entitled the holder to act as the principal usher and personal attendant to the sovereign or their representative within the parliamentary chamber. In parliamentary proceedings, the Usher's primary duties included managing entrances and exits, summoning members to sessions, and enforcing by commanding through the symbolized by the white rod—a plain staff of or whalebone serving as the badge of . The rod itself functioned as a visible of command, distinct from the but integral to rituals asserting royal and parliamentary , with the Usher wielding it to signal the start or pauses in debates. Ceremonial involvement peaked during opening rituals, where the Usher of the White Rod participated in processions escorting the —the , sceptre, and —from the strongroom to the parliamentary table, accompanied by trumpet fanfares to herald the sovereign's presence or proxy. This occurred, for example, in the Parliament House sessions of 1706, the final pre-Union parliament, underscoring the Usher's role in bridging symbolic and . Such duties extended to guarding the chamber's thresholds and assisting in the orderly conduct of votes and royal assents, ensuring proceedings adhered to established precedents amid the three estates (, temporal, and ). Following the dissolution of the in 1707, the office retained no active procedural functions, though its hereditary holder occasionally invoked ceremonial privileges in later royal events, such as coronations, without revival in the devolved established in 1999.

Regional Applications

In

In , the White Rod, referred to in Irish as slat na ríghe (rod of kingship) or slat tighearnais (rod of lordship), functioned as the primary symbol of a chieftain's or king's legitimate authority during ceremonies from approximately the 12th to the early . Crafted as a straight, pale wand typically from or wood, it emphasized simplicity and functionality over ornate design, distinguishing it from continental European sceptres. The rod symbolized the ruler's commitment to pure, just governance, embodying virtues such as equity, integrity, and freedom from corruption or bias. In ceremonial procedure, it was presented to the inauguratee by an authorized figure, such as a or cleric, following the recital of , administration of an , and placement in ancestral stone imprints or on a mound at sacred sites like the Rock of Doon or Magh Adhair. The presentation often accompanied an , such as "Receive, sire, the auspicious ensign of your ," underscoring the rod's role in affirming the chief's duty to rule lawfully over clan territories. Historical records document its use across major Gaelic lordships, including the O'Donnells at the Rock of Doon—first noted around 1200 and last employed in 1603 for Ó Donnell—and among the MacCarthys, O'Donoghues, and O'Sullivans in Desmond, where it validated succession under the system. Even some Gaelicized Anglo-Norman families, such as the De Burghs (as Mac William Íochtar), adopted the rod in their rituals, integrating it into hybrid practices amid Norman incursions. Its persistence reflected the enduring emphasis on indigenous legitimacy amid external pressures, though English conquests after the 1530s and the 1603 accelerated the erosion of such Gaelic customs.

In Medieval Scotland

In medieval , the white rod served as a key emblem of authority in both royal inaugurations and early parliamentary proceedings. During coronation rituals at , associated with the Stone of Destiny, the incoming received a white rod into his hand, signifying the mandate to govern with discretion, sincerity, and impartiality rather than tyranny. This practice underscored the rod's role in legitimizing kingship within Gaelic-influenced traditions, where it complemented other symbols like the ceremonial and emphasized just leadership over coercive power. The office of the of the White Rod, a hereditary position linked to the Usher family, emerged by the late , with records noting a prominent holder who served as twice before his death in 1275 without direct male heirs, leading to a temporary lapse in prominence. Revived and formalized around the establishment of more structured parliamentary sessions under Robert II (r. 1371–1390), the Usher bore the white rod to summon estates, announce royal proclamations, and enforce ceremonial decorum in the , which convened irregularly from the 1230s onward. The rod's white color evoked purity and justice, distinguishing the Scottish office from England's and aligning with broader heraldic uses of white staves for diplomatic neutrality in medieval . This dual application in state rituals reflected the rod's integration into Scotland's feudal and monarchical systems, where it bridged Gaelic chieftaincy customs—evident in clan inaugurations—and the evolving institutions of governance. By the , as parliaments grew more frequent, the Usher's rod became integral to opening ceremonies, symbolizing the assembly's subordination to royal will while maintaining procedural order amid noble factions.

Among Norse-Gaelic Lords of the Isles

The White Rod functioned as a primary symbol of and moral authority in the rituals of the Norse-Gaelic Lords of the Isles, rulers of the and western Scottish seaboard whose power peaked from the 12th to 15th centuries. Descended from , a figure of mixed Norse and Gaelic heritage who established the lordship around 1150, these MacDonald chiefs blended Scandinavian seafaring traditions with indigenous Celtic customs, including the presentation of the rod during ceremonies at sites like on . The unadorned, straight white wand, often paired with a , signified the lord's duty to administer without bias or violence, emphasizing rectitude over coercion in clan governance. Inaugurations typically involved the lord-elect standing on a footprint-carved stone, clad in a white robe denoting purity, while an officiant—such as a hereditary inaugurator or cleric—delivered the into his hand as a pledge of equitable rule over clans and territories spanning the Isles to . A documented 15th-century example concerns John of , the fourth (r. circa 1387–1427), who received the white rod alongside a during his , underscoring its role in affirming legitimacy amid Norse-Gaelic power structures that relied on oaths from sub-kings and nobles. Traditional accounts, preserved in collections like the , describe the rod's placement as a formal , binding the lord to uphold clan laws and protect against external threats, such as those from the Scottish crown. This ceremonial use persisted into the late lordship period, even as centralized Scottish authority eroded semi-independent Norse-Gaelic customs, until John MacDonald II's forfeiture by James IV in 1493 extinguished the title and its associated rituals. The rod's emphasis on purity contrasted with the symbolism of Norse-derived elements like galleys and axes in MacDonald , highlighting the hybrid cultural synthesis that defined the Isles' governance. Archaeological and evidence, including grave slabs potentially depicting rod-like near swords, suggests its visual prominence in commemorative art for Isles lords.

Legacy and Comparative Analysis

Survival and Decline

The use of the white rod in Gaelic inauguration rituals persisted into the but gradually declined amid the erosion of native lordships. , such ceremonies, including presentation of the slat na ríghe (white rod of kingship), were documented up to the late 16th century among clans like the and O'Donnells, symbolizing unblemished authority, but they ceased following the (1593–1603) and the in 1607, as English crown policies dismantled and elective succession. Similarly, in the and Isles, white rod presentations occurred in Norse-Gaelic inaugurations through the 13th century for figures like the Lords of the Isles, with echoes in later clan rituals, but waned after the forfeiture of the Lordship of the Isles in 1493 and the in 1609, which imposed Lowland governance and suppressed Gaelic customs. In parliamentary contexts, the white rod survived longer as an emblem of ushering authority in the of Parliament in . Prior to the 1707 Act of Union, the of the White Rod managed ceremonial proceedings in , distinct from England's , reflecting Scotland's independent traditions. Post-Union, the office transitioned to a heritable under the Walker Trustees, stripping practical duties while preserving symbolic participation in state events, such as royal coronations where the holder bears the rod in . By the , the role had become vestigial, with holders like Sir Patrick Walker serving in nominal capacities without legislative influence. Today, the Heritable Usher of the White Rod is the Bishop of , ex officio as chair of the trustees, performing no routine functions beyond occasional ceremonial honors, marking the tradition's reduction to historical relic amid Scotland's integration into the United Kingdom's unified monarchy. This persistence contrasts with the full obsolescence of Gaelic inauguratory uses, underscoring how institutional adaptation prolonged the symbol's formal existence while its cultural vitality faded.

Comparisons to Other Symbols of Authority

The White Rod, as a plain wand of white wood presented to Gaelic lords during to signify legitimate kingship and just governance, parallels other European ceremonial staffs denoting , such as the royal . The , borne by monarchs as an of temporal power and equitable rule, similarly evokes authority through its rod-like form, though it typically incorporates ornate elements like jewels to underscore divine sanction and regal continuity. In contrast, the White Rod's unadorned construction from materials such as or emphasized virtues of purity and straightforward over opulence, aligning with Gaelic traditions that eschewed crowns in favor of such minimalist symbols for . Within legislative settings, the White Rod shares functional affinities with the ceremonial mace, a staff symbolizing the Speaker's authority and the assembly's independence from external powers, as seen in parliamentary practices derived from medieval precedents. Historical maces, originating as weapons for protecting deliberative bodies, evolved into gilded emblems placed on legislative tables to affirm institutional legitimacy during sessions; the White Rod, by comparison, was wielded personally by the inaugurated ruler as a prop of investiture, highlighting individual rather than collective authority in Gaelic lordships. This distinction underscores the White Rod's role in tanistry-based successions, where it reinforced hereditary and ritualistic claims absent in mace-bearing assemblies' elective or representative frameworks. The , carried by the Usher of the Black Rod in the British to summon the and enforce ceremonial order, offers another analogous rod of office, embodying the monarch's oversight of parliament. Crafted from and used in rituals like the State Opening since at least the , it parallels the White Rod's deployment in Scottish parliamentary proceedings prior to the 1707 union, where both staffs facilitated transitions of authority through symbolic procession. Unlike the White Rod's emphasis on inaugural conferral of personal lordship, however, the Black Rod primarily signifies procedural command and the separation of legislative branches, reflecting Westminster's adversarial traditions over Gaelic inauguration's communal acclamation.

References

  1. https://odubhda.org/gaelic-inaugurations-what-they-tended-to-include-1100-1600/
  2. https://thewildgeese.irish/profiles/blogs/the-feis-at-tara-part-one
  3. https://www.libraryireland.com/SocialHistoryAncientIreland/I-II-3.php
  4. https://celticlearningcomau.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/review_of_barnwell_and_mostert_political_assemblies_in_the_earlier_middle_ages.pdf
  5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236757117_Political_Assemblies_in_the_Earlier_Middle_Ages_review
  6. https://voicesfromthedawn.com/doon-rock-and-well/
  7. https://www.clanstrachan.org/history/chief.html
  8. https://www.theclanbuchanan.com/jewels
  9. https://www.ionaabbeyandclandonald.com/1-kings--lords-of-the-isles---graveslab-attribution.html
  10. https://www.bordertelegraph.com/news/20082104.clan-buchanan-prepares-first-inauguration-340-years/
  11. https://www.scotsman.com/heritage-and-retro/heritage/scottish-clan-to-gather-to-inaugurate-first-chief-in-340-years-3662560
  12. https://kingdomofdesmond.com/?p=804
  13. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20699261
  14. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/20608838.pdf
  15. https://www.electricscotland.com/stones/sculpturedstones02stua.pdf
  16. https://app-hes-pubs-prod-neu-01.azurewebsites.net/api/file/8b611eaf-f8a7-4b0c-a12a-af2e00e51de1
  17. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20497360
  18. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/royal-family/2023/05/06/king-charles-coronation-13-ceremonial-roles/
  19. https://www.casemine.com/judgement/uk/5a8ff81060d03e7f57eb9469
  20. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45256227
  21. https://randomscottishhistory.com/2018/03/09/chapter-17-the-parliament-house-pp-157-166/
  22. https://www.edinburghbookshelf.org/volume1/page175.html
  23. https://www.scotland.anglican.org/primus-reflects-on-a-historic-moment-at-westminster/
  24. https://www.historyhit.com/how-heralds-decided-the-outcome-of-battles/
  25. https://www.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/lord-of-the-isles-power-base-to-open-for-first-time-in-500-years-859017
  26. https://www3.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaidhlig/corpus/Carmina/M118.html
  27. https://info.scot/library/history/events/lordship-of-the-isles?timeline=historic
  28. https://www.facebook.com/100063653335641/posts/-the-white-rod-the-white-rod-was-the-primary-symbol-of-a-gaelic-chieftains-or-lo/525982952555305/
  29. https://kids.kiddle.co/White_Rod
  30. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/primus-archbishop-canterbury-westminster-abbey-scottish-b2328891.html
  31. https://thecrownchronicles.co.uk/state-and-ceremonial/symbols-of-monarchy-sovereigns-orb-and-sceptre/
  32. https://www.parliament.uk/site-information/glossary/mace/
  33. https://history.house.gov/Blog/Detail/15032450168
  34. https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/Serjeant-at-Arms/History_and_role_of_the_Mace
  35. https://www.parliament.uk/about/mps-and-lords/principal/black-rod/
  36. https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/parliamentwork/offices-and-ceremonies/overview/black-rod/
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