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Yellow monitor
Yellow monitor
Yellow monitor
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Yellow (golden) monitor lizard
CITES Appendix I [1]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Anguimorpha
Family: Varanidae
Genus: Varanus
Subgenus: Empagusia
Species:
V. flavescens
Binomial name
Varanus flavescens
(Hardwicke & Gray, 1827)

The yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) or golden monitor is a monitor lizard native to South Asia.[1]

Description

[edit]

The yellow monitor is a medium-sized monitor, measuring between 45 and 95 cm (18 and 37 in) including the tail and weighing up to 1.45 kg (3.2 lb).[2] It has subcorneal teeth, scarcely compressed. Its snout is short and convex, measuring a little less than the distance from the anterior border of the orbit to the anterior border of the ear; canthus rostralis distinct. Its nostril is an oblique slit, a little nearer to the end of the snout than to the orbit. The digits are short with the length of the fourth toe, measured from its articulation with the tarsus to the base of the claw, not exceeding the length of the femur. The tail of the yellow monitor is feebly compressed and keeled above. The head scales are small and subequal; the median series of supraocular scales slightly dilated transversely. The scales on upper surfaces are moderate, oval and keeled. Abdominal scales are smooth and in 65 to 75 transverse rows. Caudal scales are keeled; the caudal keel with a very low, doubly toothed crest. Adults are olive or yellowish brown above, with irregular darker markings which are generally confluent into broad cross bars; a blackish temporal streak; lower surfaces yellowish, with rather indistinct brown cross bars, which are most distinct on the throat. Young individuals are dark brown above, with yellow spots confluent into crossbars; lower surfaces yellow, with dark brown cross bars.[3]

Each tooth position has only a single replacement teeth in waiting at any given time.[4]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]
In Terai, Nepal

The yellow monitor occurs in the flood plains of the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers in India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh.[1] It inhabits wet areas, the edges of forest and vicinity of human settlements and agricultural land. Due to its short hind toes, it is not efficient at climbing trees.[2]

Behaviour and ecology

[edit]

The yellow monitors thermoregulates by moving between sunny and shady areas, similar to other diurnal lizards. There is also one report of a yellow monitor lying on a pile of hot ash left by a human-lit fire, seemingly to gain heat from it.[5]

It may be capable of play behaviour. A yellow monitor in a wetland was observed alternating between swimming in a vertical position and floating motionlessly.[6]

Threats

[edit]
A carcass of a yellow monitor in Basai Wetland, India

The yellow monitor is threatened by hunting for its meat and skin in all range countries. Its preferred habitat is threatened due to encroachment, pollution and conversion to landfills.[1] Direct killing is the major threat to the yellow monitor in Kanchanpur District of far-western Nepal, as local people are afraid of it. It is also used as food, for medicinal purpose, and its skin has been offered for sale in wildlife markets..[7]

Conservation

[edit]

International trade of the yellow monitor is regulated under CITES Appendix I; it is listed as a legally protected species in India under Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, in Nepal under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973, and in Bangladesh under the Wildlife (Conservation and Security) Act 2012.[1]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Yellow monitor

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens), also known as the golden monitor, is a medium-sized species in the family , native to the floodplains and wetland habitats of major river systems across , including the Indus, , and Brahmaputra basins in countries such as India, Pakistan, , , and . Characterized by an olive to yellowish-brown body with darker markings and black spots, adults typically measure up to 1.5 meters in total length and weigh 2-3 kg, exhibiting a robust build adapted for terrestrial and semi-aquatic . As opportunistic carnivores, yellow monitors primarily consume like beetles, small vertebrates including and reptiles, amphibians, crabs, and bird eggs, often hunting actively in the mornings and basking to thermoregulate. The species is solitary and territorial, digging burrows for shelter and reproducing seasonally from July to October with clutches of 4-30 eggs incubated for 155-250 days. Classified as Endangered on the since 2019, yellow monitors face severe threats from habitat degradation, indiscriminate killing for meat and skins, and insufficient protected areas, leading to declining populations despite protections under Appendix I and national wildlife laws.

Taxonomy

Etymology and nomenclature

The yellow monitor bears the binomial scientific name Varanus flavescens, formally described by Thomas Hardwicke and in their 1827 publication The Zoological Miscellany. The genus Varanus, encompassing all , originates from the term waran or waral (ورن / ورل), a colloquial name historically applied to large lizards such as the , reflecting early observations of their alert, watchful demeanor akin to monitoring behavior. The species epithet flavescens derives from the Latin flavus, meaning "," combined with the -escens, denoting a process of becoming or tending toward a quality, thus describing the lizard's characteristic yellowish or golden dorsal coloration. This nomenclature highlights the animal's pale, buff-toned scales, distinguishing it from darker congeners. Common English names include yellow monitor and golden monitor, emphasizing its hue; regionally, it is known as Sun Gohoro in Nepali and Sango ih (सनगोहि) in Maithili, terms rooted in local indigenous observations of its and appearance. Historical synonyms encompass Monitor exanthematicus ssp. indicus proposed by Schlegel in 1844, reflecting early taxonomic confusion with African monitors before clarification of its Asian distinctiveness. The species remains valid under the without subsequent revisions altering its status.

Classification and phylogeny

The yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) is a of in the genus Varanus, the type genus of the family , which comprises the world's monitor lizards and is the sole family within the superfamily . This placement positions it within the suborder of the order , reflecting shared derived traits such as a , pleurodont dentition, and specialized venom-delivering glands in the lower . The was formally described by Thomas Hardwicke and in 1827, based on specimens from the region, with no recognized subspecies. V. flavescens is assigned to the Empagusia (Gray, ), a grouping of five Asian species distinguished morphologically by features including a prominent , transverse scale rows on the , and a relatively short with . The other members are the (V. bengalensis), Dumeril's monitor (V. dumerilii), the (V. nebulosus), and the grey monitor (V. griseus). Phylogenetic analyses of Varanus, incorporating morphological and molecular data (e.g., mitochondrial and nuclear genes), recover Empagusia as monophyletic within the broader Indo-Asian of monitors, which diverged from African and Australasian lineages during the . Within Empagusia, V. flavescens clusters closely with V. bengalensis based on cranial morphology and limited genetic markers, suggesting a recent likely tied to habitat specialization in riverine floodplains, though comprehensive genomic sampling for V. flavescens remains sparse.
Taxonomic rankName
KingdomAnimalia
PhylumChordata
ClassReptilia
OrderSquamata
FamilyVaranidae
GenusVaranus
SubgenusEmpagusia
SpeciesV. flavescens

Physical characteristics

Morphology and size

The yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) possesses a robust, elongated body typical of varanid , with a long neck, powerful limbs terminating in five-toed feet equipped with sharp claws adapted for digging and , and a muscular exceeding the snout-vent length that aids in and balance. The head is moderately elongated, featuring a short, convex snout slightly shorter than the distance from the eye to the ear opening, subcorneal teeth that are scarcely compressed laterally, and a deeply used for chemosensory detection. Nostrils are positioned as oblique slits near the snout tip, facilitating aquatic respiration during submersion. Dorsal scales are moderate in size, oval-shaped, and keeled for and traction, while ventral abdominal scales are smooth and arranged in 65 to 75 transverse rows; caudal scales are similarly keeled, supporting the tail's prehensile and propulsive functions. Juveniles measure approximately 14.5 cm in total length at hatching, with snout-vent lengths around 6.5 cm. Adults are medium-sized, attaining total lengths of 45 to 95 cm, though regional maxima in areas like reach 70-80 cm. The heaviest verified specimen weighed 1.45 kg at 95.2 cm total length, exceeding prior records, while typical adults weigh 0.5 to 1 kg, with occasional reports up to 3 kg unverified against this benchmark. Males and females exhibit negligible size differences.

Coloration and sexual dimorphism

The yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) displays ontogenetic changes in coloration, with juveniles featuring a dark brown dorsal surface marked by spots that coalesce into crossbars, complemented by ventral surfaces bearing dark brown crossbars. Adults exhibit an to yellowish-brown dorsum with irregular darker markings often forming broad crossbars and a blackish temporal streak, while the venter is yellowish with faint brown crossbars, most evident on the . This ' coloration varies substantially even among individuals from the same locality, including diverse patterns of spots and blotches. Sexual dimorphism in V. flavescens is weakly expressed externally, with no documented differences in coloration or patterning between sexes. As observed across varanid , dimorphism manifests chiefly through body size, wherein adult males attain larger dimensions than females due to extended growth periods post-maturity, though specific metrics for V. flavescens remain understudied.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) inhabits the floodplains of the in and the and systems extending across , , and . In , populations are primarily restricted to the basin in and provinces. Indian records document occurrences in northern and eastern states such as , , , , Jammu and Kashmir, and , often in riparian zones and agricultural wetlands adjacent to these rivers. In , the species is confined to the southern lowlands, including and surrounding floodplains of the Narayani and Rapti Rivers, which connect to the system. hosts populations in the extensive deltaic wetlands of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river confluence, particularly in and beel ecosystems. Some surveys suggest possible extension into along the Brahmaputra tributaries, though confirmed records remain sparse and unverified in peer-reviewed assessments. The is discontinuous due to from agricultural expansion and , with no substantiated extralimital populations outside these riverine corridors. Elevational range is typically below 500 meters, aligning with subtropical and tropical lowland biomes.

Habitat preferences and microhabitats

The yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) primarily inhabits lowland ecosystems across its range in , favoring areas with permanent or seasonal water bodies such as rivers, canals, marshes, and flooded grasslands. These preferences align with its semi-aquatic lifestyle, enabling efficient foraging and in warm, humid environments with slow-moving or standing water. Observations indicate avoidance of fast-flowing rivers, with individuals concentrating in silty clay soils along water edges for burrowing and basking. Within broader wetlands, the species selects microhabitats characterized by low vegetation cover and proximity to water, including canal banks, riverine floodplains, and adjacent agricultural fields. A study in altered habitats of Bangladesh's region found a strong preference for semi-aquatic microhabitats like canals and slow-moving rivers over terrestrial ones such as open fields or dense bushes, with 68% of sightings in water-adjacent sites featuring water depths under 1 meter. Bushes, including like Lantana camara, are utilized primarily for cover rather than , providing refuge from predators and human activity. In Nepal's , surveys documented higher densities in swampy lowlands and irrigated farmlands bordering perennial rivers, where soil composition supports excavation of burrows up to 1-2 meters deep for nesting and overwintering. Microhabitat selection appears driven by availability of prey in shallow waters and vegetative structure offering partial shade, with individuals rarely venturing more than 50 meters from water sources. Anthropogenic modifications, such as canal irrigation, have expanded suitable microhabitats in some agricultural landscapes, though they increase vulnerability to .

Behavior and ecology

Foraging and diet

The yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) exhibits a carnivorous and opportunistic diet, preying on a diverse array of , vertebrates, eggs, and carrion. Stomach content analyses from semi-aquatic populations in indicate that form the bulk of the diet by number of prey items, supplemented by crustaceans, amphibians, , small mammals, and bird eggs. Documented prey includes frogs, toads, , crabs, rats, and rotten flesh, reflecting adaptability to both aquatic and terrestrial environments.
Prey CategoryExamplesFrequency (% of prey items by number)
InsectsBeetles, spiders, dragonflies, water scorpions, , , crickets, grasshoppers, unidentified insects, insect larvaeBeetles: 15%; spiders: 11%; unidentified insects: 11%; others: 4–7% each
CrustaceansFreshwater crabs (Potamidae)7%
AmphibiansFrogs (Anura)4%
Small fish4%
Mammals4%
EggsBird eggs4%
Foraging is predominantly diurnal and active, with individuals allocating about 37.73% of their active time to moving in search of across benthic aquatic zones, riverbanks, and riparian . Prey detection relies on chemosensory cues via the and visual scanning, enabling location of hidden or mobile items. Smaller prey is swallowed whole, often alive, while larger vertebrates like rats or birds are dismembered using powerful jaws, teeth, and claws prior to consumption. Eggs are punctured to extract contents. Feeding activity peaks twice daily—between 6:30 AM and 10:30 AM, and 3:00 PM to 4:30 PM—with seasonal highs in (up to 28.35% of activity) linked to monsoon flooding that enhances prey availability in wetlands. Movement for foraging intensifies in (22.80%), declining in drier months like (5.82%). This opportunistic strategy supports survival in variable habitats such as marshes and floodplains.

Reproduction and development

Yellow monitors (Varanus flavescens) are oviparous reptiles that breed during the monsoon-influenced period from to , aligning with seasonal flooding in their riverine habitats. Females produce a single clutch per season, depositing 4 to 30 eggs (mean of 16) in self-dug burrows on elevated ground to avoid inundation. Eggs are elongated, typically measuring around 4–5 cm in length, and are incubated in the nest chamber without parental attendance. The incubation duration varies inversely with temperature, lasting approximately 155 days at mean temperatures exceeding 30°C but extending to 250 days or more at 30°C or below; optimal viability occurs within 30–32°C. Hatchlings emerge at 10–12 cm in total length, weighing 10–15 g, and are fully independent, dispersing to forage on small and exhibiting rapid initial growth rates typical of varanids. Both sexes reach between 2.5 and 4 years of age, averaging 3.5 years, when attaining snout-vent lengths of 250 mm in females and 260 mm in males; this corresponds to about one-third of maximum adult size. Maturity timing reflects opportunistic growth in response to prey availability in ecosystems, with captive records indicating successful first documented in 2004.

Social behavior and predators

Yellow monitors (Varanus flavescens) are predominantly solitary that maintain territories, with heightened territoriality observed during the mating season from July to October. Individuals thermoregulate by basking in sunny areas during morning activity periods and shifting to shaded spots as needed, minimizing social encounters outside of reproductive contexts. Defensive responses to threats include rising onto hind legs, hissing loudly, body swaying, and lashing the , which serves as a sharp capable of inflicting cuts. Observations of play behavior indicate potential beyond basic survival needs. In one documented case from a in , , on 8 March 2019, a wild yellow monitor exhibited locomotor play by swimming vertically, alternating forward and backward movements in five bouts averaging 143 seconds each, with brief motionless floating intervals. Such object-independent play aligns with reports in other varanids, suggesting exploratory or practice behaviors that may enhance or evasion skills, though its adaptive function remains understudied. Adult yellow monitors face few natural predators due to their size (up to 150 cm in total length), agility in aquatic and terrestrial environments, and formidable defenses like powerful bites and tail whips. Juveniles, being smaller, are more susceptible to predation by , larger reptiles, or conspecifics, as evidenced by rare intrageneric predation attempts documented in varanids. In habitats overlapping with crocodilians, such as mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris), opportunistic attacks on adults may occur, though specific records for V. flavescens are scarce; general varanid studies note predation by crocodilians as infrequent but possible for sizable individuals. Overall, empirical data on natural predation remains limited, with anthropogenic factors— including direct killing for skins and loss—posing the dominant mortality risks rather than biotic predators.

Human interactions

Cultural significance and utilization

In , particularly in and , the yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) is utilized in traditional folk medicine, with various body parts employed to treat ailments such as , paralysis, cancer, joint pain, , , and haemorrhoids. Local communities in report consuming the lizard's meat or applying its oil for respiratory issues and musculoskeletal conditions, reflecting empirical observations passed through oral traditions rather than clinical validation. Skins are harvested for products and traditional crafts, including potential use in percussion instruments in regions overlapping with related monitor species distributions. Trade in yellow monitors contributes to local economies but drives population declines, with specimens illegally exported from to for integration into formulations. Recreational supplements utilization, often combining medicinal harvesting with opportunistic killing during habitat intrusions. Unlike some monitor species revered in taboos or deities in specific ethnic groups, the yellow monitor lacks documented sacred status and is primarily viewed pragmatically as a resource, with inhabitants expressing caution due to its predatory habits rather than . These practices persist despite legal protections under Appendix I, highlighting tensions between customary use and conservation.

Captivity and veterinary care

Yellow monitors (Varanus flavescens) are rarely kept in , primarily due to their listing on Appendix I, which prohibits international commercial trade, and the scarcity of established husbandry protocols outside of occasional exhibits or legacy specimens. Successful maintenance requires expansive enclosures of at least 15 m² to accommodate their semi-aquatic and burrowing behaviors, featuring soft substrates for digging, a deep water body allowing full submersion for and hunting simulation, and a basking site maintained at approximately 45°C with ambient temperatures graded from 28–32°C. Inadequate space or environmental gradients often lead to stress, reduced activity, and health decline, as these exhibit relatively low activity levels in , typically active for only about 30 minutes in the morning and afternoon. Diet in captivity should mimic their opportunistic carnivory, consisting of varied whole prey such as frogs (e.g., three large individuals per week), fish, , amphibians, and small mammals, with supplementation of vitamins and minerals essential for indoor-held specimens to prevent nutritional imbalances. Overfeeding or imbalanced risks and metabolic disorders common in varanids, while gut-loading prey enhances nutritional value; seasonal variations in food availability may encourage breeding behaviors. Captive averages 10.6 years, though individuals can exceed 10 years with optimal care. Veterinary care emphasizes preventive husbandry to avert issues prevalent in monitors, including from insufficient UVB exposure or calcium deficiency, parasitic infestations (particularly in any wild-sourced animals), and bacterial infections from poor water quality or wounds. Regular fecal exams for , annual wellness checks, and monitoring for signs of respiratory distress (e.g., wheezing from suboptimal or ) are recommended, with prompt intervention using reptile-specialist veterinarians for conditions like dysecdysis or trauma from enclosure interactions. has been documented, with females laying 16–30 eggs incubated at 30°C hatching after 149–155 days, but survival is often low due to rearing challenges and weak innate immunity.

Conservation

Status and population estimates

The yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) is classified as Endangered on the , with the assessment conducted in 2019 by the Monitor Lizard Specialist Group. This status reflects criteria A2cd, indicating a suspected population reduction exceeding 50% over the past three generations due to exploitation and habitat degradation. The species is also listed under Appendix I, prohibiting international commercial trade. Global population size remains unquantified, with no comprehensive available as of 2024; estimates rely on indirect indicators such as encounter rates and localized surveys showing low densities. The overall population is inferred to comprise fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, consistent with Endangered thresholds, and continues to decline rapidly owing to for skins, meat, and . In Nepal's region, transect-based surveys from 2012–2018 recorded sparse sightings, with densities below 0.1 individuals per km² in riverine habitats, underscoring fragmented and low-viability subpopulations. Regional data highlight variability: in India's Bihar wetlands, anecdotal reports suggest hundreds of individuals persist in protected river corridors, but annual poaching exceeds 50–100 per site based on market seizures and hunter interviews. In Kanchanpur District, Nepal, local estimates from 2016 indicated sustainable subpopulations of several hundred, threatened by habitat conversion, with at least 87 individuals killed annually from opportunistic hunting. These figures, derived from non-systematic methods like villager questionnaires and line transects, likely underestimate totals due to the species' cryptic behavior and nocturnal tendencies, but confirm ongoing fragmentation across its range in Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. No peer-reviewed global modeling exists, and older assessments (pre-2010) erroneously categorized it as Least Concern, overlooking intensified anthropogenic pressures.

Primary threats

The primary threats to the yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) are degradation and direct anthropogenic , including and killing. These factors contribute to population declines across its range in the , where the species inhabits lowland wetlands, rivers, and agricultural areas that are increasingly converted for human use. Habitat loss occurs mainly through , , and , which fragment and degrade the aquatic and riparian ecosystems essential for the lizard's and shelter. In regions like , , agricultural runoff and from nearby human activities have been identified as key drivers, reducing suitable habitats and exposing populations to contaminants. Conversion of floodplains to croplands and landfills further diminishes available microhabitats, with studies in noting improper land use as a persistent pressure on lowland areas around reservoirs. Roadkills also pose a significant mortality risk, particularly during seasonal movements near expanding . Direct persecution stems from human-wildlife conflict and exploitation, with illegal identified as the major cause of local declines. Monitors are killed due to perceived threats to and , fueled by beliefs that they prey on domestic animals, leading to retaliatory killings especially during periods when encounters increase. Harvesting targets adults for skins used in the leather trade, meat for consumption, and eggs for food or medicinal purposes, despite CITES Appendix I protections prohibiting international commerce. Recreational and collection for the pet trade exacerbate pressures in unprotected areas, with questionnaire surveys in revealing fear-based killings as the dominant human attitude toward the species.

Conservation measures and effectiveness

The yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) benefits from legal protections across its range, including listing under Schedule I of India's Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which prohibits hunting, trade, and collection, and designation as a protected species in Nepal under national wildlife laws. International trade is restricted by its inclusion in CITES Appendix I since 1987, aiming to curb exploitation for skins, meat, and traditional medicine. Despite these measures, enforcement remains inconsistent, particularly outside protected areas where most habitat occurs, such as riverine wetlands and agricultural lowlands. Habitat-focused initiatives emphasize conserving non-forested wetlands and marshy riverine zones, as the species avoids dense forests and is vulnerable to agricultural expansion and ; for instance, studies recommend protecting and riparian buffers beyond formal reserves to mitigate fragmentation. The IUCN SSC Monitor Lizard Specialist Group supports regional assessments to inform such actions, including mapping potential distributions under climate scenarios to prioritize unglaciated lowlands. Awareness campaigns target local communities, where surveys indicate widespread ignorance of the ' protected status and ecological in controlling pests; a 2024 workshop series in Nepalese lowlands improved attitudes toward conservation by an average of 92.96%, though with minor declines in some subgroups due to perceived economic conflicts. These measures have shown limited overall effectiveness, with populations estimated to have declined 50-60% over the past three generations due to persistent illegal , roadkills, and degradation despite prohibitions. Community surveys reveal insufficient support for enforcement and ongoing nuisance killings, underscoring that legal bans alone fail without robust patrols and to counter cultural utilization. No verified recoveries have been documented, and the ' Endangered IUCN status persists, highlighting the need for integrated safeguards over reliance on trade restrictions.

Debates on utilization versus protection

The yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens) receives stringent legal protection across its range, including listing under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (), which bans international commercial trade to prevent exploitation-driven declines, and national designations such as Schedule I under India's Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, rendering any utilization illegal. Despite these measures, illegal harvesting for skins, meat, and continues, with surveys indicating it as a primary threat alongside habitat loss, contributing to the species' Endangered status on the as of 2021. In regions like Nepal's far-western lowlands, where the species occurs outside protected areas, local utilization persists despite prohibitions under the National Parks and Act of 1973. A 2014 study documented that 25% of surveyed households admitted to yellow monitors, estimating 87 individuals killed annually across the study area for consumption or sale, underscoring the challenge of enforcement in rural communities reliant on wild resources. Attitudes toward the species are divided, with 68% of respondents expressing positive or neutral views tied to cultural or ecological roles, contrasted by 12% citing conflicts like crop or predation; however, 60% supported prioritizing conservation over use, while 40% favored for economic or reasons. This local tension reflects broader conservation challenges, where proponents of regulated utilization argue it could channel demand into monitored quotas benefiting communities and reducing black-market incentives, akin to Appendix II management for other monitor species like V. salvator. Yet, empirical data on V. flavescens—including sparse populations (e.g., encounter rates of 0.08–0.25 individuals per km in Nepalese wetlands) and persistent illegal trade volumes—indicate that harvest levels exceed recruitment capacities, rendering sustainable use unviable without verified population recovery. Advocates for protection, drawing from field assessments by bodies like the IUCN SSC Monitor Lizard Specialist Group, prioritize enforcement, awareness programs (supported by 80% in the Nepal survey), and habitat safeguards, cautioning that economic arguments for utilization overlook long-term ecosystem services like pest control provided by the species. No formal proposals for downlisting to permit trade have advanced at CITES, as threat data affirm Appendix I's necessity to curb declines observed since the 1990s.

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  45. https://ncrc.com.np/the-potential-distribution-of-yellow-monitor-varanus-flavescens-hardwick-gray-under-multiple-climate-land-cover-and-dispersal-scenarios/
  46. https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/133577/
  47. https://cites.org/sites/default/files/ndf_material/NDF%2520Varanus%2520salvator_Final.pdf
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