Hubbry Logo
Agrotis ipsilonAgrotis ipsilonMain
Open search
Agrotis ipsilon
Community hub
Agrotis ipsilon
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Agrotis ipsilon
Agrotis ipsilon
Agrotis ipsilon
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Agrotis ipsilon

Secure  (NatureServe)[1]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Superfamily: Noctuoidea
Family: Noctuidae
Genus: Agrotis
Species:
A. ipsilon
Binomial name
Agrotis ipsilon
(Hufnagel, 1766)
Synonyms
  • Phalaena ipsilon Hufnagel, 1766
  • Noctua suffusa Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775
  • Noctua ypsilon Rottemburg, 1777
  • Phalaena idonea Cramer, 1780
  • Bombyx spinula Esper, 1786
  • Phalaena spinifera Villers, 1789
  • Phalaena spinula Donovan, 1801
  • Agrotis telifera Harris, 1841
  • Agrotis bipars Walker, 1857
  • Agrotis frivola Wallengren, 1860
  • Agrotis aneituna Walker, 1865
  • Agrotis pepoli Bertolini, 1874
  • Agrotis aureolum Schaus, 1898

Agrotis ipsilon, the dark sword-grass, ipsilon dart, black cutworm, greasy cutworm or floodplain cutworm, is a small noctuid moth found worldwide.[2] The moth gets its scientific name from black markings on its forewings shaped like the letter "Y" or the Greek letter upsilon.[3] The larvae are known as "cutworms" because they cut plants and other crops.[4] The larvae are serious agricultural pests and feed on nearly all varieties of vegetables and many important grains.[5][6]

This species is a seasonal migrant that travels north in the spring and south in the fall to escape extreme temperatures in the summer and winter. The migration patterns reflect how reproduction occurs in the spring and ceases in the fall.[2]

Females release sex pheromones to attract males for mating. Pheromone production and release in females and pheromone responsiveness in males is dependent on the juvenile hormone (JH) and pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide (BPAN).[7] In the span of 2 months, the moth progresses through the life cycle stages egg, larvae, pupa, and adult.[5] Throughout this time period, this moth faces the risk of predation and parasitism, such as by Hexamermis arvalis or by the parasite Archytas cirphis.[5][8]

Description

[edit]

38–48 millimetres (1.5–1.9 in). Antennae in male bipectinated. Forewings brown, reddish-tinged, mixed with pale greyish-ochreous, costa and sometimes median area suffused with dark fuscous; first and second lines edged with dark fuscous; spots outlined with black, reniform followed by a short black dash; subterminal line obscure, usually preceded in middle by two fine black marks. Hindwings whitish-grey or whitish, terminally suffused with fuscous. Larva ochreous brownish or bronzy-grey, sides sometimes greenish; dorsal, subdorsal, and spiracular lines faintly darker or lighter, usually darker-edged; head suffusedly brown-marked.[9]

Geographic range

[edit]

Populations of this species have been found in southern Canada, 48 of the United States (and additionally Hawaii), Mexico, Central and South America, Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific Rim, North Africa, Europe, and Asia.[2] However, they are absent from some tropical regions and colder areas and are more widespread in the Northern than Southern Hemisphere.

This species is also known to migrate north in the spring and migrate south in the fall.[5]

Food resources

[edit]

Caterpillars

[edit]

Larvae feed on weeds such as bluegrass, curled dock, lambsquarters, yellow rocket, and redroot pigweed. They will often eat all the weeds available before moving to attacking crops. Favored crops include most vegetable plants, alfalfa, clover, cotton, rice, sorghum, strawberry, sugarbeet, tobacco, and occasionally grains and grasses.[5]

Adults

[edit]

Adults feed on flower nectar. They are also attracted to deciduous trees and shrubs such as linden, wild plum, crabapple, and lilac.[5] They are a pollinator of fetterbush lyonia.[10]

Parental care

[edit]

Oviposition

[edit]

Based on the types of debris on the ground, the black cutworm prefers to oviposit in areas with fencerow (pasture) debris rather than corn field debris, woodland floor debris, and bare soil. Fencerow debris includes dry grass debris, and this may be attractive for females to oviposit early in the spring before rapid vegetation growth occurs.

After this growth, though, the moths are drawn more to low, dense plants such as the curled dock and yellow rocket. These plants have multiple stems and many low-lying basal leaves. On most plant species, the cutworm prefers to oviposit on the leaves rather than the stem.[11]

Life history

[edit]

Life cycle

[edit]

In a given year, the number of generations differs based on location and weather conditions. In Canada, there are 1 or 2 generations, while in the United States, there are 2 to 4 per year. This species is abundant in warmer temperatures (such as Arkansas, US) during the late spring in May–June and early fall in September and October, while they are more abundant in cooler temperatures (such as New York, US) during the summer in June and July. One life cycle lasts between 35–60 days.[5]

Egg

[edit]

The egg stage lasts 3 to 6 days. Females oviposit eggs in clusters on low-lying leaves. If such host plants are not available, the females will oviposit on dead plant material. However, they will not lay eggs on bare soil. Females can deposit eggs singly, or in groups of up to 1200 to 1900 eggs.

Caterpillar

The nearly spherical eggs are initially white but turn brown with age. The surface of the egg possesses 35–40 ribs that radiate from one apex.[5]

Caterpillar

[edit]

The larval stage lasts 20–40 days. Over the span of 5 to 9 instars, the caterpillar body grows from 3.5 mm to a maximum of 55 mm. Larval development is optimized at a temperature of 27 degrees Celsius, and instars 1–5 are most successful at higher humidities. By the 4th instar, the larva becomes light sensitive and spends most of the daylight underground. The larvae are considered pests because they damage the plant tissue under the soil. The larvae are cannibalistic.

Adult

The larva can range in color from light gray or gray brown to black. The ventral side is usually lighter, and this species does not have a dorsal band. The entire body is covered with granules and the head possesses many dark spots.[5]

Pupa

[edit]

The pupal stage lasts 12–20 days. This species pupates under the soil approximately 3–12 mm below the surface.

The pupae appear to be dark brown and are 17–12 mm long and 5–6 mm wide.[5]

Adult

[edit]

One complete generation from egg to adult lasts 35–60 days. The female preoviposition period lasts 7–10 days.

Adults have a wingspan of 40–55 mm. The forewings are dark brown, and the distal area has a light irregular band a black dash mark. The hindwings are whitish to gray and have darker colored veins.[5]

Migration

[edit]

A. ipsilon are seasonal migratory insects that travel south in the fall to escape harsh cold temperatures and travel north in the spring to escape extremely warm weather. Therefore, changes in thermoperiod as well as photoperiod may influence the onset of migration patterns in this species. Before migration southward in the fall, the reproductive system in both females and males shuts down to prevent copulation before winter. In the spring and early summer, though, before migration north, females release sex pheromones soon after eclosion. In one study, female moths collected from late April to early May were 100% mated.[2]

Enemies

[edit]

Predators

[edit]

Several species of wasps prey on the black cutworm. Larvae parasitized by Meteorus leviventris, a type of parasitoid, eat 24% less vegetation and cut 36% fewer seedlings. Other parasitoids include several fly species such as Archytas cirphis, Bonnetia comta, Gonia sequax,[12] Eucelatoria armigera and Sisyropa eudryae. Ground beetles also eat black cutworm larvae.[5] Ants, specifically Lasius neoniger also prey on this species and feed on A. ipsilon eggs.[8]

Parasites

[edit]

An entomopathogenic nematode called Hexamermis arvalis is known to infect 60% of larvae in the central United States. This parasite ultimately kills the insect. The parasite thrives in moist soil conditions.[5]

Mating

[edit]

Female calling behavior

[edit]

Calling behavior is the act of females releasing sex pheromones in preparation for mating. Calling behavior increases within the first three days after eclosion but decreases as the females grow older. As well, as the females grow older, the onset time of calling behavior occurs earlier. Calling earlier allows older females to have increased mating success as they normally produce less sex pheromone and need to appear more attractive than younger females. The amount of sex pheromone in the body and calling behavior are coordinated on a time scale.[13]

Pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide

[edit]

Females produce a sex pheromone in the pheromone gland on their abdominal tips that attracts males for mating. Biosynthesis of the sex pheromone is controlled by a neurohormone called pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide (PBAN). This 33-amino-acid-long peptide is present in both sexes in the brain-suboesophageal ganglions (Br-SOG) during both scotophase and photophase. It has been shown that the juvenile hormone is involved in the release of PBAN in both males and females. PBAN aids in pheromone production in females and pheromone responsiveness in males.[7] In another species, PBAN release has been shown to be stimulated by external factors including photoperiod, temperature and odorants from host plants[14]

Juvenile hormone

[edit]

The juvenile hormone (JH), released by the corpora allata (CA), is necessary for the production and release of the sex pheromone. The CA releases JH which acts on the production/release of the PBAN-like factor. So, PBAN is what connects the network in the CA to the central nervous system's production of sex pheromone. When the CA was removed, calling behavior and sex pheromone production stopped. As well, ovaries remained underdeveloped when the CA was absent. However, when decapitated females (meaning complete absence of the CA) were injected with a synthetic form of JH, ovaries were able to develop. This indicates that JH acts on the ovaries and production of sex pheromone in two independent neuroendocrine systems.[14]

In males, JH is necessary for pheromone responsiveness. When the CA was removed, males did not respond to female sex pheromones with sexual behavior. However, when the CA was implanted back, responsiveness and sexual behavior returned.[15]

Physiology

[edit]

Olfaction

[edit]

A. ipsilon has a sensitive olfactory system with many proteins that are expressed in the antennae. Such proteins include odorant binding proteins (OBPs), chemosensory proteins (CSPs), odorant receptors (ORs), ionotropic receptors (IRs) and sensory neuron membrane proteins (SNMPs). These proteins are responsible for recognizing sex pheromone and general odorants, such as those released by host plants.[16]

Interactions with humans

[edit]

Pest of crop plants

[edit]

Each larva can consume over 400 square centimetres of foliage during its development. They feed above ground until about the fourth instar. After that they do considerable damage to crops by severing young plants at ground level. In the midwestern US, the black cutworm is considered to be a serious pest of corn. Corn is very susceptible at the one-leaf stage, but by the four- or five-leaf stage, it is relatively unaffected. Damage to the underground parts of plants can also be harmful.[5] Other crops where serious damage occurs include cotton, maize, tobacco, sunflower, tomatoes, sugar beet and potato.[17]

Management

[edit]

There are three options to manage cutworm population and the incurred damages. Soil insecticides can be applied as a pre-plant treatment, although this may be limited by the unpredictability of cutworm population density distribution. These insecticides can also be applied as a planting-time treatment, although the same limitations still hold. The third option would be a rescue treatment that is applied after the infestations have occurred; this is also called the wait-and-see system. This may also be preferable due to a recently lower occurrence of outbreaks.[18]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Agrotis ipsilon

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Agrotis ipsilon, commonly known as the black or ipsilon dart, is a of noctuid whose larvae are major subterranean pests of agricultural crops worldwide, feeding voraciously on seedlings and stems at or below ground level, often severing plants and causing significant stand losses in fields. Belonging to the order in the family , A. ipsilon was first described by Hufnagel in 1766 and is characterized by its migratory behavior and polyphagous nature. The adult has a of 35–50 mm, with forewings that are predominantly dark brown to black, marked by a lighter bean-shaped spot and a distinctive pale "ipsilon" (Y-shaped) marking near the , while the hindwings are lighter with a dark terminal band. Larvae, the damaging stage, are hairless and greasy in appearance, varying from gray to black with a pale dorsal stripe, and can grow up to 45 mm long, progressing through six to nine instars. The life cycle of A. ipsilon typically spans 35–60 days, influenced by temperature and food availability, encompassing four stages: eggs laid in clusters on foliage, active nocturnal-feeding larvae that hide in during the day, a pupal stage lasting 12–20 days in the , and adults that emerge to mate and oviposit, with 2–5 generations per year depending on the region. Eggs are hemispherical and initially white, turning brown before hatching in 5–10 days, while pupae are reddish-brown and measure about 20 mm. In temperate areas, populations overwinter as partially grown larvae or pupae in southern regions, migrating northward on wind currents each spring. Originally native to , A. ipsilon has achieved a nearly through human-mediated transport and long-distance migration, occurring across North and South America, , , , and parts of , though it is less common in arid or extremely cold zones. It attacks over 100 host , including major crops such as corn, , soybeans, , , , strawberries, and turfgrasses, as well as numerous and weeds, with a preference for grasses and broadleaf in early growth stages. Economically, it poses a severe threat to establishment in field crops, potentially reducing corn yields by 10–18% in heavily infested areas through direct cutting and secondary feeding on roots or foliage, leading to substantial annual losses for farmers globally.

Taxonomy

Classification

Agrotis ipsilon belongs to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Arthropoda, class Insecta, order , family , subfamily Noctuinae, tribe Noctuini, genus Agrotis, and species A. ipsilon (Hufnagel, 1766). The species was originally described as Phalaena ipsilon by Hufnagel in 1766. Within the genus Agrotis, which comprises approximately 300 described species distributed worldwide except in polar regions, A. ipsilon is recognized for its placement among the moths, a group characterized by soil-dwelling larvae. This genus is part of the diverse family, the largest family of , and evolutionary studies highlight Agrotis as a monophyletic group within Noctuinae, with adaptations linked to nocturnal habits and subterranean larval stages. Commonly known as the black cutworm or ipsilon dart, A. ipsilon exemplifies the genus's economic significance in agriculture.

Nomenclature and etymology

The binomial name of this species is Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel, 1766), originally described by Johann Siegfried Hufnagel in the genus Phalaena based on specimens from the Berlin region (Prussia, modern-day Germany). The genus name Agrotis derives from word agrotis, meaning a field-dweller or countrywoman, alluding to the ' association with agricultural fields. The specific epithet ipsilon (often spelled ypsilon in older literature) refers to the Greek letter (υ), reflecting the distinctive Y- or V-shaped marking on the forewing of the adult moth. Several synonyms have been applied to A. ipsilon over time, including Scotia ipsilon Hufnagel, Feltia ypsilon Rottenburg, Agrotis ypsilon (Rott.), Agrotis aneituma Walker, and Agrotis spinifera Hübner (the latter recognized as a junior in some regions). Common names for A. ipsilon vary by region and emphasize its pest status or morphological features, such as black , greasy , ipsilon dart, and in ; dark sword-grass in ; and gram in parts of .

Morphology

Adult

The adult Agrotis ipsilon is a medium-sized noctuid characterized by a ranging from 35 to 50 mm. The body is stout and robust, with a hairy thorax that contributes to its overall fuzzy appearance. Antennae exhibit : in males, they are bipectinate along the basal half or two-thirds before tapering to filiform distally, while in females, they are uniformly filiform. The forewings are typically gray-brown to blackish, often with a purplish tint in some specimens, and feature prominent markings that aid in identification. A distinctive Y- or upsilon-shaped marking, formed by a black dash extending from the bean-shaped reniform spot and connecting to the claviform spot, appears near the ; these spots, along with the orbicular spot, are outlined in black. The proximal two-thirds of the forewing is uniformly dark, while the distal area may show a lighter irregular band. Hindwings are lighter, appearing dirty white to light gray with darker veining and fringes. is minimal beyond antennal differences, though females may exhibit broader dark shading across the forewing.

Larva

The larvae of Agrotis ipsilon, commonly known as black cutworms, are cylindrical caterpillars that reach lengths of up to 50 mm when fully grown. They exhibit a greasy appearance due to numerous coarse granules covering the body surface, giving the skin a shiny, bumpy texture under magnification. The overall coloration ranges from light gray to dark gray-brown or nearly black on the dorsal and lateral surfaces, with the ventral side typically lighter. A pale midline stripe often runs along the dorsum, and faint lighter stripes may appear laterally, though the body lacks bold markings. Early instars are smaller and more uniform in color, progressing to darker shades in later stages as the larvae mature. The head capsule is brownish with dark spots or two white spots, and the body is sparsely covered with scattered bristles, appearing nearly hairless. Larvae possess three pairs of thoracic legs and five pairs of abdominal prolegs, with the anterior prolegs underdeveloped in early instars, enabling a characteristic looping locomotion. The head often features an inverted "V"-shaped marking formed by the sutures. Agrotis ipsilon larvae typically undergo 6 to 9 , with 6 or 7 being most common, depending on dietary quality. From the fourth onward, they display photonegative behavior, hiding in during the day as an for concealment. Coloration can vary slightly from gray to brownish tones, influenced by environmental factors, though the greasy gray-to-black form predominates. These larvae cause characteristic feeding damage to plants by severing stems at the soil surface.

Egg and pupa

The eggs of Agrotis ipsilon are nearly spherical with a slightly flattened base, measuring approximately 0.43–0.50 mm in height and 0.51–0.58 mm in width. They feature a ribbed surface with 35–40 ribs radiating from the apex, alternating between long and short structures, which contributes to their sculptured . Initially white or yellowish-white, the eggs darken to gray or brown as they age, reflecting embryonic development. Females deposit these in clusters of 10–30 on foliage, though total oviposition per female can exceed 1,000 across multiple clusters. Under favorable conditions, hatch in 3–6 days, marking the transition to the larval stage. The of A. ipsilon measures 17–22 mm in length and 5–6 mm in width, with a reddish-brown to dark brown coloration that darkens over time. It is formed in an earthen cell within the at depths of 3–12 cm, providing protection during . Key morphological features include a cremaster—a hooked terminal structure for attachment—and movable abdominal segments that allow limited flexibility. Through the translucent , outlines of developing wings and appendages are visible, indicating the non-feeding nature of this stage, which lasts 12–20 days without nutritional intake.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Agrotis ipsilon is a cosmopolitan with a native origin in the , particularly , where it was first described from specimens collected in in 1766. It has since spread widely through human-mediated introduction and natural migration, becoming established in the , , , and . The is absent from extreme environments such as polar regions like and vast desert areas, as well as certain tropical highlands and cold zones where conditions are unsuitable for survival. In , A. ipsilon is now distributed across the continent from southern to . It overwinters primarily in pupal or larval stages in warmer southern regions, including the (such as and ), northern , and the Gulf Coast areas. From these overwintering sites, adults migrate northward annually, reaching northern latitudes like and during spring and summer via wind-assisted flights covering hundreds of kilometers. Similar patterns occur in the Mediterranean region, where the species overwinters in subtropical climates and recolonizes each year. The global distribution reflects its adaptability to temperate and subtropical zones, with established populations in agricultural areas across , , and . In and , it is prevalent in most regions except high-altitude , while in , it occurs in temperate and lowland areas but not universally. This broad range underscores its status as a major agricultural pest, facilitated by both accidental introductions and long-distance migration.

Habitat preferences

Agrotis ipsilon thrives in a variety of human-modified environments, particularly those with moist, loose soils that facilitate larval burrowing and development. It prefers agricultural fields, lawns, and disturbed areas where organic-rich, weed-infested soils predominate, such as in row crops and turfgrass settings. These conditions are commonly found in temperate to subtropical climates, where the species can complete multiple generations annually. The larvae favor proximity to crops like corn and areas with abundant weeds, including bluegrass and lambsquarters, which provide suitable microhabitats for oviposition and feeding. Floodplains and irrigated regions are particularly suitable due to consistent levels, while the avoids dry or heavily shaded habitats that limit accessibility and growth. This preference for open, sunny areas with adequate supports its prevalence in both rural farmlands and urban landscapes. In urban settings, A. ipsilon is commonly encountered in golf courses, vegetable gardens, and manicured lawns, where maintains the moist conditions it requires. Seasonally, it adapts to varying moisture availability by concentrating in irrigated or habitats during drier periods, ensuring survival across its broad climatic range. Its global distribution enables occupancy of these diverse habitats, from subtropical overwintering sites to temperate agricultural zones.

Life cycle

Egg stage

The egg stage of Agrotis ipsilon typically lasts 2–7 days, with the duration strongly influenced by ; optimal development occurs at 25–30°C, where embryogenesis completes in 3–4 days, while cooler temperatures extend the period up to 10 days or more. is rare in eggs, as this species generally does not enter at this life stage, allowing rapid progression under favorable conditions. Hatching occurs as first-instar larvae emerge from the . The newly hatched first-instar larvae begin feeding on foliage, typically lasting 4–6 days before molting to the second and marking the transition to more active . Successful egg development requires high relative , typically 70–80%, as eggs are prone to in dry conditions, which can significantly reduce hatch rates. During this vulnerable stage, eggs face high mortality from predation, particularly by ants such as Lasius neoniger, which can consume over 90% of exposed egg clusters within 12 hours, and from egg parasitoids like Trichogramma chilonis.

Larval stage

The larval stage of Agrotis ipsilon, commonly known as the black cutworm, represents the primary feeding and growth phase of this noctuid , during which the undergoes significant morphological and physiological changes. Upon from eggs, neonates are small, measuring approximately 3.5 mm in length and weighing around 0.5 mg, with a dark gray to black body marked by a pale dorsal stripe. As development progresses, larvae exhibit in size and , reaching lengths of 30–50 mm and weights of 1–2 g by maturity, enabling them to consume substantial foliage volumes—over 80% of total intake occurs in the final . Larvae typically complete 6–9 instars, with 6–7 being most common, over a period of 20–40 days under favorable conditions. The number of instars can vary based on and environmental factors, with head capsule widths increasing progressively from 0.26–0.35 mm in the first to 3.7–4.1 mm in the eighth. Growth is characterized by molting between instars, during which larvae shed their to accommodate rapid expansion; for instance, body length doubles or more from early to mid-instars. Development time for the larval stage is highly temperature-dependent, with optimal rates at around 27°C, where completion occurs in approximately 28–35 days. At lower temperatures, such as 20°C, the duration extends to about 30–62 days, reflecting slower metabolic processes and prolonged periods. Feeding activity intensifies during the 3rd through 5th instars, when larvae transition from surface scraping to more destructive habits, accounting for the majority of accumulation. Burrowing behavior is a key strategy, with larvae emerging nocturnally to feed on foliage at the surface while seeking refuge in during the day to avoid predation and . From the 3rd onward, they construct shallow burrows up to 8 cm deep, lining them with and debris for protection; larger individuals may 2.5–5 cm initially, deepening as they mature. This cryptic habit enhances by minimizing exposure to diurnal threats. In colder regions, such as southern latitudes where overwintering occurs, larvae enter typically in the 4th–6th , remaining dormant in burrows until spring warming triggers resumption of development. This facultative allows persistence through winter, with post-diapause larvae completing growth before transitioning to the pupal stage.

Pupal stage

The pupal stage of Agrotis ipsilon commences when the fully developed burrows into the , typically to a depth of 3 to 12 cm, and constructs an earthen cell for pupation. This process follows the cessation of larval feeding, with the transforming into a within the protective chamber. The is reddish-brown, initially lighter in tone before darkening, and measures approximately 17 to 22 mm in length and 5 to 6 mm in width. The duration of the pupal stage varies from 12 to 20 days under typical field conditions, with development accelerating at higher temperatures such as 20–25°C, where it averages about 15 days. During this non-feeding phase, the pupa relies entirely on nutrient reserves accumulated during the larval stage to complete metamorphosis. Eclosion is influenced by soil temperature and moisture, with warmer conditions promoting faster emergence; in drier soils, larvae may burrow deeper to access sufficient humidity for pupal survival. Pupae exhibit high vulnerability to environmental and biological threats, including predation by soil-dwelling arthropods such as ground beetles and potential mortality from flooding or waterlogged conditions that disrupt the earthen chamber. These factors contribute to significant losses during this immobile stage, underscoring the importance of conditions for successful development.

Adult stage

The adult stage of Agrotis ipsilon is brief, typically lasting 5–15 days, during which the moths prioritize over sustained feeding activities. Adults engage in minimal intake from flowers to support energy needs for mating and oviposition, though many sources indicate this is occasional and not essential for survival. The preoviposition period for females spans 7–10 days, after which egg-laying commences, peaking around 6 days post-mating under optimal conditions of 24–25°C. (Swier et al., 1977) These moths exhibit strictly nocturnal activity, emerging at to initiate flights and hiding in soil cracks or during daylight hours. (Xiang and Yang, 2008a) Peak flight occurs shortly after sunset, facilitating mate location and dispersal, with emigrating individuals ascending into wind currents for migration. Adult longevity varies with temperature, shortening at extremes above or below 25°C, where survival rates and reproductive output also decline. (Xiang et al., 2009) Dispersal is a key function, with adults capable of covering substantial distances—up to 1000 km northward in spring over 2–4 days—assisted by , contributing to the species' wide geographic range across generations. (Showers et al., 1989) In tethered flight assays, individuals have demonstrated total flight distances averaging around 33 km over multiple bouts, underscoring their migratory potential. Senescence patterns differ by and mating status: unmated adults outlive mated ones, and generally persist longer than males, with the latter experiencing a post-mating decline marked by inhibited responses to female sex pheromones that prevent remating. (Xiang et al., 2010) This transient inhibition in males, lasting several hours to days after copulation, aligns with the reproductive focus of the stage.

Ecology

Diet and host plants

The larvae of Agrotis ipsilon, commonly known as the black cutworm, are highly polyphagous, feeding on numerous species across many families, making them significant pests in agricultural settings. Primary host include economically important crops such as corn (Zea mays), (Nicotiana tabacum), (Gossypium hirsutum), and various vegetables like tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) and (Lactuca sativa). These larvae typically cause damage by cutting stems at or just below ground level, often severing young seedlings and leaving them to wilt, which is particularly injurious to early-season crops. Early s consume relatively little foliage, with over 80% of total food intake occurring in the final instar and about 10% in the penultimate instar, often exceeding 400 cm² of area per over the entire development period. They preferentially target succulent seedlings and young , burrowing into the during the day and emerging at night to feed. Alternative weed hosts, such as grasses (e.g., bluegrass, Poa spp.), chickweed (Stellaria media), and pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), serve as important food sources, especially in uncultivated areas or field margins, supporting larval survival before crop infestation. Adult A. ipsilon moths primarily feed on nectar from flowers and extrafloral nectaries, with preferred sources including deciduous trees and shrubs such as linden (Tilia spp.), wild plum (Prunus spp.), crabapple (Malus spp.), and lilac (Syringa spp.). This nectar consumption provides essential energy for reproduction and migration, though feeding behavior can vary by population and environmental conditions.

Migration

Agrotis ipsilon undergoes multigenerational migration, with adults moving northward in spring from overwintering sites in southern latitudes such as the Gulf Coast region and , advancing up to 500 km per generation in to exploit favorable conditions further north. This northward progression occurs over multiple generations, typically 2–6 per year depending on and , allowing successive cohorts to found new populations in temperate areas unsuitable for overwintering. In fall, a return migration southward takes place, driven by cooling temperatures, completing the annual cycle without individual moths returning to their origin—rather, the process relies on progeny of successive generations. Migration is triggered by a combination of wind currents that facilitate long-distance transport, temperature gradients signaling seasonal changes, and increasing population densities that encourage dispersal to reduce competition. Adults actively fly at night, often at altitudes of 1,000–1,500 m, where they exploit prevailing winds for passive displacement while maintaining orientation through environmental cues. Studies indicate that A. ipsilon employs a magnetic compass for directed flight, with gene expression profiles in cryptochrome and magnetoreceptor genes elevated in migratory populations to support navigational accuracy. These migratory patterns have significant agricultural impacts, as arriving moths introduce larvae to new crop fields, leading to outbreaks in regions like the Midwest where they damage corn and other seedlings. Monitoring relies on networks of pheromone traps deployed across agricultural areas to detect influxes and predict larval damage, enabling timely interventions.

Natural enemies

Natural enemies play a crucial role in regulating populations of Agrotis ipsilon, the black cutworm, by exerting density-dependent mortality that can suppress outbreaks and enhance biological control potential in agricultural and turfgrass systems. Predators, parasitoids, and pathogens collectively contribute to larval and egg mortality. Among pathogens, baculoviruses such as Agrotis ipsilon nucleopolyhedrovirus (AgipMNPV) are particularly effective, causing epizootics in larval stages by infecting early instars and leading to 75–93% mortality in third and fourth instars under field conditions on turf. Entomopathogenic fungi like also target larvae, inducing mycosis that disrupts development and results in significant mortality, with strains achieving up to 70% control in laboratory and field assays against soil-dwelling instars. These natural enemies provide density-dependent control, where higher pest densities amplify enemy impacts through increased host availability for parasitoids and faster spread, often integrating well with cultural practices like reduced to boost enemy persistence. In turfgrass ecosystems, research highlights demonstrate that combined enemy activity, including parasitoids and pathogens, can cause substantial larval mortality, mitigating damage without sole reliance on chemical interventions.

Behavior and reproduction

Mating behavior

In Agrotis ipsilon, mating is initiated by female calling behavior, which begins on the first night after adult emergence and occurs primarily during the second half of the scotophase, typically in the evening hours. The proportion of calling females increases significantly from 1- to 3-day-old adults, peaking around the third night of adult life, before declining thereafter. Males respond to female-released pheromones by initiating flight and oriented behaviors toward the source, with response intensity heightening with male age and advancing time within the scotophase. Most mating events take place approximately 6 hours after sunset. Recent studies have shown that sexual maturation, occurring between the third and fifth day post-emergence, is influenced by diet; intake of sugars and sodium accelerates development and enhances pheromone responsiveness through hormonal modulation, such as . Copulation typically lasts 1–2 hours, after which mated males exhibit reduced responsiveness to , limiting remating within the same night. Females are capable of multiple matings across successive nights, though overall mating success is influenced by population ; activity is low at a 1:1 ratio but increases with imbalances favoring either sex. The sex ratio in laboratory and field populations is generally 1:1, with no significant deviations reported under standard conditions. This temporal patterning aligns with the species' nocturnal habits and pheromone-mediated mate location.

Pheromone communication

The sex pheromone of female Agrotis ipsilon is a multicomponent blend dominated by (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate (Z7-12:OAc), which constitutes 80–95% of the total, accompanied by minor components including (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate (Z9-14:OAc) at 5–15% and (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (Z11-16:OAc) at trace levels (0.1–5%). This specific ratio ensures species-specific attraction, as deviations can reduce male responsiveness. The blend is produced in the pheromone gland and released during the calling period, typically in the early scotophase, integrating with mating behaviors to facilitate long-range orientation. Females emit the at a rate of 1–10 ng per hour, creating an intermittent, wind-mediated plume that disperses downwind for distances up to 100 m, allowing males to detect even low concentrations from afar. The plume's filament structure, with intermittent bursts of pheromone molecules, guides males in oriented flight by providing temporal and spatial cues for navigation. This emission strategy maximizes detection efficiency in nocturnal environments, where wind speeds of 0.5–1 m/s are common. Upon encountering the plume, males exhibit upwind flight mediated by specialized antennal receptors tuned to the components, leading to source location and . This behavioral response is highly sensitive, with males capable of detecting as few as 10–100 molecules per plume filament. Synthetic replicates of the blend are widely deployed in traps to monitor and flight periods, aiding pest management decisions in agricultural settings. Geographic variations in blend ratios exist across populations of A. ipsilon, with, for example, higher proportions of Z11-16:OAc in European strains compared to North American ones, potentially creating reproductive barriers or hybrid zones where intermediate ratios occur. Such dialectal differences influence cross-attraction levels, with males from one region showing reduced responses to blends from distant populations, highlighting the role of specificity in maintaining genetic isolation despite the species' migratory nature.

Oviposition

Females of Agrotis ipsilon typically begin oviposition 2 to 3 days after , with egg-laying activity occurring nocturnally and peaking around the sixth day post-. The process generally spans 3 to 5 nights, during which moths are most active after dusk, depositing eggs under cover of darkness to minimize predation risk. This timing aligns with the species' nocturnal lifestyle, where often precedes oviposition by a brief interval following adult emergence, which itself has a preoviposition period of 7 to 10 days. Site selection for oviposition favors host foliage, particularly the lower leaves or stems of low-growing broadleaf plants and weeds, with a preference for moist surfaces that provide suitable microhabitats for survival. Eggs are laid in clusters of 1 to 30, often on the ventral surfaces of leaves, exposed , or even moist cracks and near the ground, enhancing retention for embryonic development. If preferred broadleaf is scarce, females may deposit eggs on dead material or crop residues, though alone is unsuitable. Host plant volatiles play a key role in guiding oviposition site choice, attracting gravid females to suitable hosts and influencing the distribution of egg masses across fields. Oviposition rates are higher on preferred crops such as corn (Zea mays), where volatile emissions signal nutritional quality, compared to less favored substrates. varies with environmental conditions, but females typically produce 500 to 2,000 eggs over their reproductive lifespan, with clusters contributing to the total output. Under optimal temperature (18–26°C) and (30–80% RH), egg viability reaches approximately 80%, supporting high hatching success and population persistence.

Physiology

Olfactory system

The of Agrotis ipsilon is primarily housed in the bipectinate antennae, which serve as the main sensory structures for detecting chemical cues such as pheromones and host volatiles. These antennae are densely covered with cuticular sensilla, specialized hair-like structures that contain neurons (ORNs) immersed in sensillar . In males, the antennae feature a high of long trichoid sensilla, estimated at approximately 6,800 per antenna, which are primarily tuned to pheromones, while females possess slightly more, around 7,500 trichoid sensilla, along with other types for detecting odors relevant to oviposition. Additional sensilla types include short trichoid, basiconic (plate-like), and coeloconic (peg-like) sensilla, which contribute to general odor detection; coeloconic sensilla, for instance, are implicated in perceiving a broader range of environmental volatiles. Pheromone detection begins with soluble carrier proteins in the sensillar that transport hydrophobic odorants to membrane-bound receptors on ORN dendrites. In A. ipsilon, three main -binding proteins (PBPs)—AipsPBP1, AipsPBP2, and AipsPBP3—have been identified and are expressed in the antennae of both sexes, though with higher abundance in males for PBP1 and PBP2. These PBPs selectively bind the key components, such as (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate, (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate, and (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate, facilitating their delivery across the aqueous to odorant receptors (ORs). The species expresses 42 OR genes in its antennal transcriptome, with male-specific or male-enriched ORs (e.g., AipsOR1, AipsOR3, AipsOR4, and AipsOR14) likely tuned to these pheromone blends, forming heteromeric ion channels with the conserved co-receptor ORco to initiate . General odorant-binding proteins (GOBPs), such as AipsGOBP1 and AipsGOBP2, similarly aid in transporting volatiles to ORs, supporting host location in females. The sensitivity of the A. ipsilon is exceptionally high, enabling detection of sex pheromones at concentrations as low as 1 ng, with neuronal thresholds around this level for eliciting responses in pheromone-tuned ORNs; this allows males to locate calling females from distances of several kilometers in natural settings. In females, the system supports oviposition by detecting host plant volatiles at similar low thresholds, guiding selection of suitable feeding sites for larvae. These cues are transduced into electrical signals via OR activation, which depolarize ORNs and generate action potentials. Olfactory signals are rapidly processed through dedicated neural pathways in the . Axons from pheromone-sensitive ORNs project specifically to the macroglomerular complex (MGC), a male-specific subdivision of the antennal lobe comprising three to four large glomeruli that receive inputs segregated by pheromone component. This organization enables parallel processing and integration of the multi-component blend, with projection neurons in the MGC relaying transformed signals to higher centers like the and lateral protocerebrum for behavioral decisions. Plant odor-responsive ORNs project to ordinary glomeruli surrounding the MGC, allowing contextual modulation of processing, such as enhanced upwind flight toward females near host . This pathway supports quick orientation behaviors essential for and survival.

Hormonal regulation

In Agrotis ipsilon, (JH) plays a central role in regulating both larval development and adult reproductive processes. During the larval stage, JH, synthesized by the corpora allata, maintains larval characteristics and promotes molting by interacting with ecdysteroids, preventing premature into pupae. In adults, JH titers rise shortly after eclosion, peaking to stimulate and ovarian maturation in females, as well as the growth of male sex accessory glands essential for production. This post-eclosion surge in JH also coordinates production and calling behavior, ensuring reproductive readiness. The biosynthesis activating (PBAN), a pyrokinin family member, is crucial for production in female A. ipsilon. Encoded by a expressed in the brain-suboesophageal complex, PBAN is released from neurohemal sites, including the corpora cardiaca, to directly stimulate the pheromone glands. Upon binding to its G-protein-coupled receptor in the gland cells, PBAN upregulates the activity of key enzymes, such as fatty acyl reductases, leading to the synthesis and release of the blend, primarily (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate. This process is modulated by JH, which enhances PBAN release but does not affect its synthesis. Ecdysone, primarily in its active form (20E), governs metamorphic transitions in A. ipsilon. Secreted from the prothoracic glands in larvae, triggers pupation by initiating apolysis and histolysis of larval tissues, with titers increasing progressively during the final to coordinate adult emergence. In coordination with JH, ensures precise developmental timing; high JH levels early in the instar prevent pupation, while declining JH allows to drive later. Disruptions to signaling, such as from insecticides, reduce pupation rates and lead to malformed adults. Reproductive diapause in adult A. ipsilon, particularly in autumn generations, is photoperiod-sensitive and characterized by low JH titers, which suppress ovarian development and pheromone responsiveness. Short day lengths (e.g., 12:12 L:D) induce this , delaying sexual maturation until longer photoperiods or JH application terminate it, restoring and mating behavior. This mechanism allows migratory populations to conserve energy during overwintering or long flights before reproduction.

Interactions with humans

Agricultural pest status

Agrotis ipsilon, commonly known as the black cutworm, is a significant agricultural pest whose larvae inflict damage by severing young seedlings at or just below the surface, often resulting in stand losses of 10–30% in affected fields. This feeding behavior primarily targets the bases of stems, causing plants to wilt and die, with the most severe impacts occurring during the early growth stages of crops. The pest affects numerous crops worldwide, including major field crops such as corn, soybeans, and , as well as turf grasses, strawberries, and various . Economically, A. ipsilon contributes to substantial annual losses in the United States, estimated at over 10 million bushels of corn alone in 2024, equating to tens of millions of dollars based on prevailing grain prices. These figures underscore its impact in the , where even sporadic infestations can lead to yield reductions of up to 24% in grain and higher in corn when damage occurs at the V3 to V5 growth stages. In developing regions, the economic burden is exacerbated by limited access to monitoring and intervention tools, amplifying crop vulnerabilities and overall production costs. Outbreaks of A. ipsilon are often triggered by mild winter conditions that enhance larval survival in southern overwintering areas, followed by northward migration of adults via spring currents, leading to sudden infestations in northern grain-producing regions. Economic action thresholds are typically set at 5–10% of plants cut, depending on larval size and crop value, to prevent unacceptable yield declines. Historically, A. ipsilon has been recognized as a major pest in grain belts since the , with documented outbreaks causing widespread seedling destruction in corn and other cereals across and . Its status as a key economic threat persisted into the , notably affecting yields in regions like and contributing to recurring challenges in temperate agricultural systems.

Management strategies

Integrated pest management (IPM) for Agrotis ipsilon, commonly known as the black cutworm, emphasizes a combination of cultural, chemical, biological, and monitoring practices to minimize crop damage while reducing reliance on synthetic pesticides. This approach targets the pest's life stages, particularly eggs and larvae, in crops like corn where it causes significant economic losses through stem cutting. Cultural controls focus on disrupting the pest's life cycle and reducing host availability. Crop rotation away from or before planting corn helps lower populations, as these preceding crops harbor higher numbers of overwintering pupae. practices, such as fall plowing, expose pupae to predators and , while early planting allows crops to outgrow larval damage before peak infestation. in and around fields eliminates alternate hosts like chickweed and shepherd's purse, which support egg-laying and larval development. Chemical management involves targeted applications to protect seedlings. Insecticides such as or are applied at planting as soil treatments to target early larvae, providing prophylactic protection in high-risk fields. Seed treatments with neonicotinoids, including high rates of or , offer suppression of seedling pests like black cutworm, though efficacy varies and complete control is not always achieved. foliar applications are recommended when reveals damage thresholds, but timing is critical to avoid resistance development. Biological controls leverage natural enemies to suppress populations. Releases of egg parasitoids such as Trichogramma spp. target noctuid eggs, including those of A. ipsilon, and have shown efficacy in augmentative programs for management in various crops. Sprays of Agrotis ipsilon nucleopolyhedrovirus (AgipNPV), a baculovirus pathogen, infect and kill larvae, offering a selective for turf and field applications. Encouraging predators through habitat diversification, such as planting cover crops and maintaining field borders, supports ground beetles, birds, and entomopathogenic nematodes that prey on larvae. Additionally, transgenic corn hybrids expressing Bt toxins (e.g., Cry1F or Vip3A) provide effective control against black cutworm larvae. Monitoring is essential for timely intervention and is based on adult moth activity and larval presence. Pheromone traps capture male moths to forecast egg-laying peaks, with a biofix established at 9 or more moths over two nights, followed by degree-day models (e.g., 312–364 DD base 50°F for cutting stage). Fields should be scouted weekly post-emergence, examining 100–250 plants across multiple locations for cut plants or larvae; economic thresholds include 3%–5% plants cut or showing leaf feeding with 2 or more larvae per 100 plants, adjusted for crop stage and yield potential.

References

  1. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN703
  2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=56364
  3. https://extension.umn.edu/corn-pest-management/black-cutworm-corn
  4. https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/encyclopedia/black-cutworm
  5. http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/Type/agrotis.htm
  6. https://extension.illinois.edu/blogs/farm-focus/2025-05-02-black-cutworm-corn-identification-impact-and-control-strategies-part
  7. https://www.afromoths.net/species/48678
  8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24871281/
  9. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.3801
  10. https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03f3fd57ffc5-ff87-58c0-fa72fd24ff59
  11. https://www.mothsofindia.org/agrotis-ipsilon
  12. https://www.agri.huji.ac.il/mepests/pest/Agrotis_ipsilon/
  13. https://lepidoptera.butterflyhouse.com.au/noct/ipsilon.html
  14. https://agroatlas.ru/en/content/pests/Agrotis_ipsilon/index.html
  15. https://www.afromoths.net/species/48683
  16. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/black-cutworm
  17. https://pnwmoths.biol.wwu.edu/browse/family-noctuidae/subfamily-noctuinae/tribe-noctuini/agrotis/agrotis-ipsilon/
  18. https://bugguide.net/node/view/38914
  19. https://ipm.illinois.edu/fieldcrops/insects/black_cutworm.pdf
  20. https://www.gcsaa.org/docs/default-source/Environment/ipm-planning-guide/blk_cutworm.pdf
  21. https://cms.ctahr.hawaii.edu/ckm/Home/Insects-and-Other-Pests/Caterpillars/Agrotis-ipsilon
  22. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/agrotis-ipsilon
  23. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/sugarbeet/cutworms/
  24. https://ipm.illinois.edu/fieldcrops/insects/black_cutworm/index.html
  25. https://trichogramma.bg/en/pests/ypsilon-moth-agrotis-ipsilon/
  26. https://www.agrimetassociation.org/journal/fullpage/fullpage-20210611454431345.pdf
  27. https://bioone.org/journals/Environmental-Entomology/volume-29/issue-1/0046-225X-29.1.116/Ant-Predation-on-Eggs-and-Larvae-of-the-Black-Cutworm/10.1603/0046-225X-29.1.116.short
  28. https://comunicatascientiae.com.br/comunicata/article/download/172/99
  29. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237761357_Black_Cutworm_Agrotis_ipsilon_Hufnagel_Insecta_Lepidoptera_Noctuidae1
  30. https://digitallibrary.landcareresearch.co.nz/digital/api/collection/p20022coll21/id/19/download
  31. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361351231_Temperature-dependent_development_of_Agrotis_ipsilon_Lepidoptera_Noctuidae_and_its_stage_transition_models
  32. https://www.scribd.com/document/452484171/Agrotis-ipsilon
  33. http://cloud.agroclimate.org/tools/cotton-pests-in-florida/pests/blackcutworm
  34. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233571850_Implications_for_Migration_of_Age-Related_Variation_in_Flight_Behavior_of_Agrotis_ipsilon_Lepidoptera_Noctuidae
  35. https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/213/17/2933/9900/Switching-attraction-to-inhibition-mating-induced
  36. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/insect-science/articles/10.3389/finsc.2024.1505524/full
  37. https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/17/6/851
  38. https://www.potatopro.com/about/cutworms
  39. https://bioone.org/journals/annals-of-the-entomological-society-of-america/volume-108/issue-4/sav050/Trans-Regional-Migration-of-Agrotis-ipsilon-Lepidoptera--Noctuidae-in/10.1093/aesa/sav050.short
  40. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11177203/
  41. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.ento.42.1.393
  42. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10905-019-09714-z
  43. https://ipm.missouri.edu/pestMonitoring/bcw/index.cfm
  44. https://extension.psu.edu/black-cutworm/
  45. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1186&context=gradschool_diss
  46. https://academic.oup.com/jee/article-abstract/99/4/1129/2218523
  47. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261219425002406
  48. https://chembioagro.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40538-024-00692-9
  49. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1570-7458.2010.00988.x
  50. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1005468203045
  51. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39402830/
  52. https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/228/4/JEB249807/367051/Modulation-of-sex-pheromone-detection-by
  53. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2001.1710
  54. http://www.ent-bull.com.cn/viewmulu_en.aspx?qi_id=288&mid=4749
  55. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6637144/
  56. https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/212/8/1191/19114/Quantitative-analysis-of-sex-pheromone-coding-in
  57. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.96.10.5764
  58. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8147264/
  59. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7294775/
  60. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2015.00148/full
  61. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15568357/
  62. https://academic.oup.com/aesa/article/93/6/1322/161478
  63. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022191010001770
  64. https://academic.oup.com/chemse/article/27/1/45/305103
  65. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1226861512001094
  66. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03014223.1974.9517814
  67. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0965174801001722
  68. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234088348_Sex_pheromone_recognition_and_immunolocalization_of_three_pheromone_binding_proteins_in_the_black_cutworm_moth_Agrotis_ipsilon
  69. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4118888/
  70. https://academic.oup.com/chemse/article/32/5/483/365445
  71. https://academic.oup.com/chemse/article/35/8/705/334071
  72. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S122686152500041X
  73. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC16304/
  74. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0022191094001376
  75. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9753769/
  76. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016648008001585
  77. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-46915-0
  78. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3762930/
  79. https://academic.oup.com/ee/article-abstract/11/2/306/2480184
  80. https://www.cropscience.bayer.us/articles/cp/black-cutworms-pose-threat-to-corn
  81. https://extension.missouri.edu/publications/g7112
  82. https://cropprotectionnetwork.org/publications/corn-invertebrate-loss-estimates-from-the-united-states-and-ontario-canada-2024
  83. https://academic.oup.com/jee/article-abstract/91/3/748/2216905
  84. https://extension.psu.edu/black-cutworm-management-in-organic-field-corn/
  85. https://vegento.russell.wisc.edu/pests/black-cutworm/
  86. https://www.midway.k-state.edu/crops/docs/corn-insect-pest-management-2025_MF810.pdf
  87. https://extension.usu.edu/planthealth/research/high-tunnel-pests-caterpillars.pdf
  88. https://extension.sdstate.edu/scout-corn-black-cutworm-activity
  89. https://ag.purdue.edu/department/entm/extension/field-crops-ipm/corn/black-cutworms.html
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.