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Asman
God of the Sky
Starry Sky at Deir Gachin Caravanserai from the Sassanid Empire era
AvestanAsman 𐬀𐬯𐬨𐬀𐬥
AffiliationThe Thirty-Three Deities, Guardians of the Days of the Month
AbodeThe Seven Celestial Spheres, The Place of Ohrmazd
WeaponThunder
SymbolBlue Sky, Seven Spheres, Stars, Brightness, Water Drop, Cosmic dome
Sacred flowerHaoma
AttributesGod of the Sky, God of the universe, Guardian of Light, Guardian of Joy and Truth, First Being
Day27th of each month in the Iranian calendar
MountChariot pulled by Wind and Eagle
Gendermale
FestivalsMaidyozarem
Associated deitiesMithra, Hvare-khshaeta, Kshatra Vairya
Equivalents
GreekUranus
RomanJupiter
IndianDyaus
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Asman (Avestan: 𐬀𐬯𐬨𐬀𐬥, romanized: asman) is the Avestan and Middle Persian name of the Zoroastrian divinity that is the hypostasis of the sky. Asman is the "highest heaven," and is distinguished from the firmament, 𐬚𐬡𐬁𐬴𐬀 (θβāṣ̌a), which lies nearer the earth. The 27th day of the Zoroastrian calendar is dedicated to him. In the Veda, अश्मन (áśman) means 'sky'. It also means "stone" so the specific sense in reference to the sky is as "stony firmament".

In the Avesta, specifically in the Vendidad, the word is mentioned as being the first thing created.[1] The word is also the origination of the word آسمان (âsmân) in modern Persian and numerous languages of South Asia.[2]

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Asman

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Asman (: asman, : āsmān) is the Zoroastrian divinity personifying the sky, revered as the hypostasis of the heavens and the highest realm in the cosmic order. As the first material creation of Ohrmazd (), it embodies the protective vault enclosing the , formed from his head using endless light, and is depicted as a spherical structure akin to a bird's , with equal , breadth, and depth. In Zoroastrian cosmology, Asman serves as a divine warrior clad in shining armor, aiding in the battle against demons, and is dedicated to the 27th day of the Zoroastrian month. Its composition varies in texts as stone, shining metal, steel, glass, or mēnōg wind, forming a firmament that supports the celestial bodies. The heavens are structured into four to seven concentric spheres, encompassing the stars, moon, sun, and the boundless light of paradise (garōdmān), separated by distances of 34,000 frasangs; these spheres feature 180 windows to the east and 180 to the west for the sun, 135 on each side for the moon, and 90 on each side for the stars. As a yazata (worshipful being), Asman is revered in Zoroastrian tradition. Key Pahlavi texts such as the Bundahišn, Dēnkard, and Pahlavi Rivāyat elaborate on its role and composition.

Etymology and Terminology

Avestan Origins

The Avestan term asman- denotes the sky or firmament and originates from the Proto-Indo-Iranian *Háćmā, which traces back to the Proto-Indo-European *h₂éḱmō meaning "stone." This root reflects an ancient conceptualization of the sky as a solid, vaulted structure akin to a stone canopy over the earth, a notion shared with Vedic Sanskrit áśman- ("stone") and its figurative extension to the heavens. In the primary Avestan scriptures, particularly the , asman primarily refers to the physical sky rather than a fully developed divine entity. For instance, 16.6 invokes worship of "the " (asman) alongside the and the ritual order (mathra), portraying it as a cosmic element integral to the natural world without attributing personal agency. Similarly, in 23.1, the fravashis (pre-souls of the righteous) are said to "hold the (asman) in its place apart," emphasizing its role as a stable, material expanse upheld by divine forces. These references underscore asman as a tangible vault, often contrasted with the (zam), highlighting its foundational place in the observable . The Gathas, the oldest portion of the attributed to , further illustrate asman as the unpersonified physical . In 44.4, a key verse from the Ushtavad Gatha, is questioned on the creation of "the lights and the winds, and the waters, and the , and the plants, and the good mind, and the highest (garō.demānəm asmanəm), which has no pillars." Here, asman symbolizes the boundless upper realm, free of visible supports, reinforcing its depiction as a self-sustaining celestial dome rather than an anthropomorphic being. Other Gathic passages, such as 60.1 and 61.1, position asman spatially "between the and " in liturgical contexts, treating it as a boundary in the created order. Early texts begin to hint at asman as a hypostasis, the abstract embodiment of the embodying the highest and serving as a divine within Zoroastrian cosmology. This nascent aligns asman with the broader category of yazatas (worthy of worship), where it represents the luminous, protective vault that encompasses the material world, though full deification emerges more prominently in later literature.

Middle Persian Developments

In Pahlavi texts, the term asman- was adapted as āsmān, signifying both the visible sky and the transcendent heavens, reflecting a linguistic and conceptual evolution from its antecedent asman-. This adaptation, prominent during the Sasanian period (224–651 CE), integrated āsmān more firmly into Zoroastrian cosmology as a foundational element of the material world, distinct from its earlier, more abstract usage. Āsmān is explicitly characterized as the first creation in the gētīg, or material realm, fashioned by Ohrmazd to initiate the physical order of existence. In the Dēnkard (Book 7, p. 124.6), it is depicted as Ohrmazd's primordial formation, serving as the boundary between the spiritual and tangible domains. This role underscores āsmān's primacy in countering chaotic forces, with its substance described variably as enduring stone, gleaming metal (almāst), or a luminous spiritual essence akin to (mēnōg). The of āsmān as a —a worthy of —further developed in , portraying it as an armored warrior aiding Ohrmazd against demonic adversaries. The Dēnkard (Book 9, p. 829.15) elaborates this image, presenting āsmān as a protective celestial entity, often associated with of the Zoroastrian month, symbolizing its enduring guardianship over creation. This conceptualization, echoed in texts like the Pahlavi Rivāyat (p. 128), highlights the Sasanian-era synthesis of āsmān into a dynamic theological figure, bridging cosmology and ritual devotion.

Cosmological Role

Creation by Ohrmazd

In Zoroastrian cosmology, Asman, representing the or heavens, originates as the initial material creation by the supreme deity Ohrmazd, marking the transition from the spiritual to the tangible realm. According to the Pahlavi Rivayat, Ohrmazd first manifested the heavens from his own head after nurturing the prototypes of creation within his body for three thousand years, establishing Asman as the foundational element of the physical world. This act underscores Ohrmazd's role as the unassailed creator, positioning Asman as the protective outermost layer that encapsulates subsequent creations. The sequence of Ohrmazd's seven material creations in the gētīg (tangible) world begins with Asman, followed by , , , animals, humans, and fire. This order is detailed in the Bundahišn, where the is explicitly identified as the first creature produced to counter the impending by the evil spirit , ensuring the structural integrity of the . The Bundahišn further elaborates that these creations were initially conceived in the mēnōg (spiritual, invisible) state for three thousand years before their materialization, allowing for their perfection in Ohrmazd's light. Asman thus serves as a conceptual bridge between the mēnōg and gētīg realms, embodying the outermost envelope that safeguards the inner world from chaotic forces while reflecting the divine order of Ohrmazd's . In this dual existence, Asman maintains its spiritual essence even in material form, as noted in the Dēnkard and Zātspram, where it arises from the substance of light to enclose and support the evolving . This foundational role highlights Asman's primacy in Zoroastrian , preceding and encompassing all other elements.

Structure and Composition

In Zoroastrian cosmology, Asman, the or , is depicted as a spherical structure resembling a bird's in form, with equal height and breadth, and a white coloration that underscores its luminous purity. This vast enclosure surrounds the , encompassing all material creation within its bounds, and is positioned as the uppermost layer of the visible world created by Ohrmazd. Its immense scale is emphasized by the distances between its internal divisions, such as approximately 34,000 farsangs (a traditional unit of measure) separating key layers, highlighting the grandeur of the cosmic architecture. Asman is divided into four primary concentric spheres, progressing outward from the : the lowest contains the and constellations, followed by the sphere of the , then the sun, and culminating in the highest realm of boundless light known as Garōdmān or paradise. Some accounts vary slightly, proposing six or seven spheres that incorporate planetary bodies or align with the Amesha Spentas, but the fourfold division remains central in key texts like the Pahlavi Rivāyat. These layers function as stations for celestial luminaries, with apertures or windows—180 to the east and 180 to the west for the sun, 135 on each side for the , and 90 on each side for the —allowing their passage and illumination of the world below. The composition of Asman draws from diverse yet harmonious substances, including stone for its foundational solidity, shining metal or steel (almāst) for its reflective brilliance, glass for transparency in certain descriptions, and even a mēnōg (spiritual) wind denoted as wāy for its ethereal quality. In one tradition, it arises from ruby-like material, evoking its radiant essence. Notably, Asman lacks physical pillars (abēsutūn), instead being invisibly upheld by the frawahrs—the guardian spirits of the righteous—which form an immaterial support structure, ensuring its stability against chaotic forces. This invisible bolstering by frawahrs, likened to warriors fortifying a rampart, integrates the spiritual and material realms seamlessly.

Textual References

In the Bundahišn

In the Bundahišn, a central Pahlavi cosmological , Asman is depicted as the primordial sky, created by Ohrmazd from endless light as the first material entity, forming a spherical enclosure around the world like a protective armor or eggshell. This sky is personified as a warrior-like guardian spirit, arrayed in shining steel against the assault of the evil Ahriman, leading the charge in the initial cosmic conflict and aiding the benevolent forces in their ninety-day struggle. Asman's guardian role extends to its active participation in the battle against demonic forces, where it withstands Ahriman's destructive onrush and supports the spiritual yazads in maintaining cosmic order, ultimately contributing to the triumph at the world's renovation (). Specific references highlight its resilience in battle, such as passages where Asman, arrayed in shining armor, fights against demons (Bundahišn 60.14, 172.14). The text details Asman's structure through the concept of heavenly windows or apertures in the encircling mountain of Alburz, which connect the to the luminaries' paths: 180 windows each in the east and west for the sun's daily passage, 135 on each side for the , and 90 on each for the stars (Bundahišn 55.2). These apertures facilitate the celestial bodies' revolutions, underscoring Asman's function in regulating time and light within the . Asman encloses the entire world without visible supports, separating the material realm from the spiritual mēnōg. In the Bundahišn, mountains such as Alburz interact with the ; Alburz grew over 800 years to connect earth and sky (Bundahišn IX.2), while other mountains grew in 18 years to stabilize the earth (Bundahišn VI.C.5).

In Other Pahlavi Sources

In the Dēnkard, Asman is portrayed as the first material creation of Ohrmazd, originating from his head and serving as the highest heaven that functions as a pathway . Specifically, in book 9, chapter 124, section 6, it is described as encompassing the upper realm, with its substance likened to mēnōg , emphasizing its ethereal yet foundational role in the cosmic order. The Wizīdagīhā ī Zādspram further elaborates on Asman's initial position in the material world, depicting it as a boundless, pillarless expanse created by Ohrmazd to enclose and protect the creations below. Complementing this, the Pahlavi Riwāyat (p. 128) details Asman's formation from Ohrmazd's head as a spherical entity of equal height and breadth, composed partly of glass-like material that underscores its transparency and durability. These texts highlight Asman's protective function in maintaining separation from the , aided by the fravahrs, while its glassy properties symbolize an impermeable barrier against chaos. A notable evolution in later Pahlavi literature portrays Asman as an active combatant against demons, personified as a divine clad in shining metal armor to repel demonic assaults on the good creation. This martial depiction, evident in the Persian Rivāyats (p. 48), builds on earlier cosmological roles by emphasizing Asman's agency in the ongoing cosmic struggle, distinct from but paralleling its static enclosure in the Bundahišn.

Personification and Worship

As a Yazata

In Zoroastrian theology, Asman is personified as a yazata who presides over the sky, embodying its vastness and protective expanse as a divine entity worthy of worship. This personification underscores Asman's role in maintaining cosmic order, where it is invoked in Avestan prayers such as the Siroza, with the 27th section stating: "We sacrifice unto the shining Heavens; we sacrifice unto the bright, all-happy, blissful abode of the holy ones." Asman's attributes portray it as a divinity clad in shining armor, symbolizing the sky's impenetrable and luminous nature. It actively combats demons (divs), assisting in the eternal struggle against Ahriman's forces to preserve the sanctity of the heavens, as detailed in Pahlavi texts where it aids in battles that uphold divine equilibrium. These invocations briefly appear in liturgical contexts, reinforcing its protective vigilance without elaborating on ritual forms. Within the Zoroastrian hierarchy, Asman holds a subordinate position to Ohrmazd, the supreme creator, having been formed as the first material creation from Ohrmazd's essence. This integration highlights the sky's sacred role as a barrier against impurity and a conduit for divine benevolence, ensuring the overall purity and order of the cosmos.

Dedications and Rituals

In Zoroastrian , Asman receives special dedication on the 27th day of each month, known as rōz Āsmān, where devotees recite invocations seeking its protective embrace over the world. This day features prayers drawn from the Sih-rozag, a collection of invocations honoring the guardian divinity of each day, with the 27th paragraph specifically praising Asman for encompassing the earth and warding off demonic forces. Within the broader ceremony, the central act of Zoroastrian worship, Asman is invoked alongside other yazatas to affirm its role in upholding the boundaries between the material and spiritual realms. These praises, embedded in the Pahlavi commentary on Yasna 44.4, emphasize the unsupported yet enduring nature of the as a divine creation, recited to reinforce the ritual's focus on purity and protection. During the Sasanian period (224–651 CE), Zoroastrian cosmology, including descriptions of the sky's structure in texts like the Bundahišn, informed astronomical observations by priests.

Celestial Windows and Spheres

In Zoroastrian cosmology, the sky, known as Asman, is conceptualized as a series of concentric spherical layers encircling the , forming a fourfold system that organizes the celestial realm. The innermost sphere contains the , followed by the sphere of the , then the sun's sphere, and outermost the garōdmān, a boundless light representing paradise or the divine abode. These spheres feature specialized portals, referred to as windows or apertures (rōzan), which facilitate the daily passage of celestial bodies. The sun traverses through 180 windows in the east and 180 in the west, allowing its circuit around the world Alburz; the utilizes 135 windows on each side, while the pass through 90 windows eastward and westward. These portals ensure the orderly movement of without collision, maintaining cosmic harmony as described in Pahlavi texts. The stability of these spherical structures relies on invisible supports from the mēnōg (spiritual) realm, rather than physical pillars, preventing any collapse in the material world (gētīg). The fravahrs, or guardian spirits, particularly those of righteous warriors, uphold the sky, providing ethereal reinforcement. This non-material framework underscores the sky's role as a protective vault, sustained by divine essences.

Comparisons with Other Traditions

In Manichaean cosmology, the universe consists of ten heavens (plus a zodiacal level) formed from the hides of defeated archons by the Living Spirit and his five sons, representing a highly stratified structure that echoes yet diverges from Zoroastrian precedents. This multi-layered system contrasts with the Zoroastrian portrayal of Asman as the primordial, encompassing , the first material creation of Ohrmazd, characterized by a more integrated four-sphere model that emphasizes unity and elemental progression rather than extensive hierarchical divisions. The Islamic tradition of seven (or sometimes up to nine) layered skies, known as samāwāt, aligns each level with a planetary body and depicts them as rotating spheres carrying , differing markedly from Zoroastrianism's four-sphere uniqueness where Asman forms the outermost vault enclosing the cosmos. While direct borrowing is debated, Zoroastrian cosmological elements, including astral associations and heavenly abodes, likely influenced Islamic views through Sasanian-era interactions, as seen in descriptions by medieval scholars like al-Bīrūnī. Zoroastrianism's depiction of Asman as a solid, vaulted dome—often likened to crystal or precious stone—bears conceptual resemblances to the Abrahamic firmament (rāqîa), a hammered expanse separating waters above and below in Genesis, potentially transmitted through ancient Near Eastern traditions and Achaemenid cultural exchanges following the Babylonian exile. This vaulted motif underscores a common ancient Near Eastern worldview, where the sky serves as a protective barrier and divine boundary, though Zoroastrianism uniquely integrates it into a dualistic ethical framework. Modern scholarship draws interpretive links between Asman, as the hypostatized sky divinity embodying order and sovereignty, and the Mesopotamian god Anu, the primordial sky deity ruling the heavenly realm from his uppermost abode. Both figures personify the celestial expanse as a structured, paternal force overseeing cosmic harmony, reflecting broader Indo-Iranian and Mesopotamian syncretisms evident in Achaemenid-era adaptations of Babylonian astral lore.
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